Communication Learning Objectives Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to do the following: • Define the communication process • Discuss the different organizational needs fulfilled by communication • Discuss the different modes of interpersonal communication • Describe the different types of communication channels • Explain formal and informal methods of organizational communication • Explain individual and organizational barriers to effective communication • Discuss how to promote good communication One of the most famous publicized cases reflecting the importance of communication was NASA’s attempt at a Mars landing. In that instance, the landing module crashed because of miscommunication. One scientist was making calculations using the metric system, while another one was using the English system (yards versus meters), and this information never was communicated properly. Similarly, it is still believed that the 9/11 terrorist attack on the United States could have been avoided through proper and speedy communication of pertinent information among the different agencies of law enforcement. Weedon (2003) notes, “Of the lessons learned from the tragic events of that day, one of the most important is the need to effectively communicate and exchange data in a timely fashion” (p. 18). He goes on to say, The inability of state and local law enforcement, criminal justice and related agencies to communicate and share information on a timely basis is epidemic across the nation. The lack of interoperability among police agencies, fire departments, emergency medical services and the numerous other public safety agencies is a chronic problem. In addition, the effects of the inability to communicate and share vital data among criminal justice agencies are not just felt during national emergencies but rather, on a day-to-day basis. (p. 18) Emphasizing the importance of good and speedy communication, the chief of the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department notes, “Communication is perhaps the most essential element of effective law enforcement in the war on terror” (Bayless, 2004, p. 47). This was demonstrated most recently in solving the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing case that left three dead and hundreds injured. The incident took place at 2:50 p.m. on Monday, April 15, near the finish line of the Boston Marathon in which more than 23,000 participated, with many times more people cheering them along the 26.2 mile route (CNN news). The task of identifying the suspects was difficult, given the number of people at the sight and with absolutely no lead. After going through thousands of hours of video footage and photographs collected from the CCTV and public, and interrogating several people, by Thursday 5 p.m. (ET) the FBI released pictures of two male suspects being sought in connection with the Boston Marathon bombings. And within 24 hours of releasing the photographs, law enforcement agencies had one suspect shot dead and the other was apprehended. All this happened through good and speedy communication among the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, the Massachusetts State Police, residents, and many other local organizations of Massachusetts. In the day-to-day duties performed by law enforcement agencies, miscommunication or ineffective communication can result in grave situations with serious outcomes. Think of the importance of effective communication in a 911 emergency call between the caller and the receiver, and with the various officers responding to attend to the emergency. At each exchange of information between different entities, there is a possibility for service failure because of communication error. Unfortunately, when communication goes bad in criminal justice, the effects are devastating for the system and the public alike. Therefore, to enhance public and officer safety, information systems must be used that facilitate real-time communications among law enforcement, judicial, correctional, and related agencies. There is also a need to continue developing information-sharing standards within the justice community to enable easy dissemination of information via global websites (Weedon, 2003). In simple words, communication is one of the most important management tools within criminal justice agencies, which, when conducted effectively, promotes high service quality. It has a major impact on the performance of individuals, groups, and various agencies that collectively maintain law and order in a society. The importance of communication can be gauged from the fact that managers and administrators spend at least 80% of their workday in communication with others (Daft & Marcic, 2004, p. 480; Mintzberg, 1973). The various forms of communication that managers may be involved in during their day-to-day activities include meetings, telephone calls, the Internet, and talking informally while walking around. The other 20% of the time is typically spent in doing desk work, most of which may involve communication in the form of writing. In this chapter, communication of all kinds by both an individual and an organization is examined. At the individual level, the interest is in understanding the interpersonal aspects of communication, including communication channels, persuasion, and listening skills that influence a manager’s or an administrator’s1 ability to communicate effectively. At the organization level, this chapter will examine different forms of communication, namely, one-way, two-way, nonverbal, upward, downward, and horizontal communication. Career Highlight Box Paralegals and Legal Assistants Nature of the Work Paralegals and legal assistants do a variety of tasks to support lawyers, including maintaining and organizing files, conducting legal research, and drafting documents. Paralegals and legal assistants typically do the following: • Investigate the facts of a case • Conduct research on relevant laws, regulations, and legal articles • Organize and present the information • Keep information related to cases or transactions in computer databases • Write reports to help lawyers prepare for trials • Draft correspondence and other documents, such as contracts and mortgages • Get affidavits and other formal statements that may be used as evidence in court • Help lawyers during trials Paralegals and legal assistants help lawyers prepare for hearings, trials, and corporate meetings. However, their specific duties may vary depending on the size of the firm or organization. In smaller firms, paralegals duties tend to vary more. In addition to reviewing and organizing information, paralegals may prepare written reports that help lawyers determine how to handle their cases. If lawyers decide to file lawsuits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal arguments and draft documents to be filed with the court. In larger organizations, paralegals work mostly on a particular phase of a case, rather than handling a case from beginning to end. For example, a litigation paralegal might only review legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for lawyers, and collect and organize evidence for hearings. Litigation paralegals often do not attend trials, but might prepare trial documents or draft settlement agreements. Law firms increasingly use technology and computer software for managing documents and preparing for trials. Paralegals use computer software to draft and index documents and prepare presentations. In addition, paralegals must be familiar with electronic database management and be up to date on the latest software used for electronic discovery. Electronic discovery refers to all electronic materials that are related to a trial, such as emails, data, documents, accounting databases, and websites. Paralegals can assume more responsibilities by specializing in areas such as litigation, personal injury, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, intellectual property, bankruptcy, immigration, family law, and real estate. In addition, experienced paralegals may assume supervisory responsibilities, such as overseeing team projects or delegating work to other paralegals. Paralegal tasks may differ depending on the type of department or the size of the law firm they work for. The following are examples of types of paralegals: Corporate paralegals often help lawyers prepare employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock-option plans, and companies’ annual financial reports. Corporate paralegals may monitor and review government regulations to ensure that the corporation is aware of new legal requirements. Litigation paralegals maintain documents received from clients, conduct research for lawyers, and retrieve and organize evidence for use at depositions and trials. Work environment. Paralegals and legal assistants work in law offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and do other tasks. Paralegals who work for law firms, corporations, and government agencies usually work full time. Although most paralegals work year-round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year. Paralegals who work for law firms may work very long hours and overtime to meet deadlines. Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement Many paralegals and legal assistants have an associate’s degree or a certificate in paralegal studies. Most paralegals and legal assistants have an associate’s degree in paralegal studies, or a bachelor’s degree in another field and a certificate in paralegal studies. In some cases, employers may hire college graduates with a bachelor’s degree but no legal experience or education and train them on the job. Education and training. There are several paths to become a paralegal. Candidates can enroll in a community college paralegal program to earn an associate’s degree. A small number of schools also offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in paralegal studies. Those who already have a bachelor’s degree in another subject can earn a certificate in paralegal studies. Finally, some employers hire entry-level paralegals without any experience or education in paralegal studies and train them on the job, though these jobs typically require a bachelor’s degree. Associate’s and bachelor’s degree programs in paralegal studies usually combine paralegal training, such as courses in legal research and the legal applications of computers, with other academic subjects. Most certificate programs provide this intensive paralegal training for people who already hold college degrees. Some certificate programs only take a few months to complete. More than 1,000 colleges and universities offer formal paralegal training programs. However, only about 270 paralegal programs are approved by the American Bar Association (ABA). Many paralegal training programs also offer an internship, in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a private law firm, the office of a public defender or attorney general, a corporate legal department, a legal aid organization, or a government agency. Internship experience helps students improve their technical skills and can enhance their employment prospects. Employers sometimes hire college graduates with no legal experience or education and train them on the job. In these cases, the new employee often has experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as tax preparation or criminal justice. In many cases, employers prefer candidates who have at least one year of experience in a law firm or other office setting. In addition, a technical understanding of a specific legal specialty can be helpful. For example, a personal-injury law firm may desire a paralegal with a background in nursing or health administration. Work experience in a law firm or other office setting is particularly important for people who do not have formal paralegal training. Certification and other qualifications. Although not required by most employers, earning voluntary certification may help applicants get a paralegal job. Many national and local paralegal organizations offer voluntary paralegal certifications to students able to pass an exam. Other organizations offer voluntary paralegal certifications for paralegals who meet certain experience and education criteria. For more information about paralegal certifications, see the Contacts for More Info section. Other important qualities: Computer skills. Paralegals need to be familiar with using computers for legal research and litigation support. They also use computer programs for organizing and maintaining important documents. Interpersonal skills. Paralegals spend most of their time working with clients or other professionals and must be able to develop good relationships. They must make clients feel comfortable sharing personal information related to their cases. Organizational skills. Paralegals may be responsible for many cases at one time. They must adapt quickly to changing deadlines. Research skills. Paralegals need good research and investigative skills to conduct legal research. Speaking and writing skills. Paralegals must be able to document and present their research and related information to their supervising attorney. Advancement. Paralegals usually are given more responsibilities and require less supervision as they gain work experience. Experienced paralegals may supervise and delegate assignments to other paralegals and clerical staff. Employment Paralegals and legal assistants held about 256,000 jobs in May 2010. Paralegals are found in all types of organizations, but most work for law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies. The following industries employed the most paralegals and legal assistants in 2010: Legal services—70%; State and local government, excluding education and hospitals—9%; Federal government—6%; Finance and insurance—4%. Job Outlook As employers try to reduce costs and increase the efficiency of legal services, they are expected to hire more paralegals and legal assistants. Following the cutbacks experienced during the recent recession, some law firms are rebuilding their support staff by hiring paralegals. Paralegals can be a less costly alternative to lawyers and perform a wider variety of duties, including tasks once done by lawyers. This will cause an increase in demand for paralegals and legal assistants. Employment change. Employment of paralegals and legal assistants is expected to grow from 256,000 to 302,900, which is an 18 percent growth from 2010 to 2020, about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition, paralegals’ work is less likely to be offshored than that of other legal workers. Paralegals routinely file and store important documents and work with lawyers to gather documents for important transactions, hearings, and depositions. They frequently handle documents and take statements, which must be done in person. Law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals, but many large corporations are increasing their in-house legal departments to cut costs. For many companies, the high cost of lawyers and their support staff makes it much more economical to have an in-house legal department rather than to retain outside counsel. This will lead to an increase in the demand of legal workers in a variety of settings, such as finance and insurance firms, consulting firms, and health care providers. However, demand for paralegals could be limited by law firms’ workloads. When work is slow, lawyers may increase the number of hours they can bill a client by doing tasks that were previously delegated to paralegals. This may make a firm less likely to keep some paralegals on staff or hire new ones until the work load increases. Job prospects. This occupation attracts many applicants, and competition for jobs will be strong. Experienced, formally trained paralegals should have the best job prospects. In addition, many firms will prefer paralegals with experience and specialization in high-demand practice areas. Earnings Earnings of paralegals and legal assistants vary greatly. Salaries depend on education, training, experience, the type and size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. In general, paralegals that work for large law firms or in large cities earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in smaller cities. The median annual wage of paralegals and legal assistants was $46,680 in May 2010. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,460, and the top 10 percent earned more than $74,870. In addition to earning a salary, many paralegals receive bonuses, in part, to compensate them for sometimes having to work long hours. Paralegals also receive vacation, paid sick leave, a 401 savings plan, life insurance, personal paid time off, dental insurance, and reimbursement for continuing legal education. Source: From the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012–13 Edition, by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Available online at http://www.bls.gov/ooh. Definition Communication is defined as a process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities. Reaching a common understanding means that people have a fairly accurate idea of what is being communicated to them; it does not imply that people have to agree with each other (Daft & Marcic, 2004). To improve the quality of communication, it is important to understand the communication process (Daft & Marcic, 2004; Drafke & Kossen, 2002). A prerequisite for communication is the existence of at least two entities—a receiving and a sending entity. The sender is anyone who wishes to convey the information or idea to others. Once the information or idea has been decided, then the sender encodes the information or idea into symbols or language that he or she believes the receiver can understand. The result of encoding is a message. A message is said to be clear when it contains information that is easily understood. Therefore, vocabulary and knowledge play an important role in the sender’s ability to encode (see Figure 8.1). The message is sent through a channel, which is a communication carrier such as a formal report, a telephone call, an e-mail message, or a face-to-face meeting. The receiver is the person or group for whom the information or idea is intended. On receiving the message, the receiver decodes the symbols or language to interpret the meaning of the message. This process of decoding may not always be fully successful because the receiver interprets the message based on previous experience, culture, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes. Subsequently, the receiver responds to the sender with a return message, considered feedback, which lets the sender know whether the message was received as intended. The message is considered one-way communication if there is no feedback, but with the feedback it is considered a two-way communication (Lewis, Goodman, & Fandt, 2001). Based on observations, interviews, and records of police, Manning (1988) gives a descriptive rendition of communication among the police and between the police and the public. He examines the symbolic transformation of communication, discussing how communication is mediated by classification systems, technology, roles and tasks, and interpretations within the police force. A flow chart is presented by Manning (p. 51) to provide a visual representation of call processing in the communications center of the British Police Department. Communication takes place within a setting defined as the social context, which has an impact on the other components of the communication process. For example, communication between a sergeant and an officer during their kids’ soccer game is more informal compared to communication in the sergeant’s office. There will be fewer interruptions during communication in the sergeant’s office, but the officer may be less outspoken in the feedback given. Manning (1988) discusses how selected factors in addition to message content impact organizational communication in law enforcement. He argues, The police have evolved technologically sophisticated equipment to cope with increased citizen demand, but messages are received, interpreted, processed, transformed, and allocated for resolution within socially patterned relationships. Social relations, coding procedures, interpretative practices, and working rules, are derived in part from the occupational culture, shape, constrain, and pattern messages regardless of their informational content and form. (pp. 3–4) Figure 8.1 Communication Process Manning (1988) makes the case that “meaning is socially constructed from the occasioned relevance of message content in an organizational structure through interpretative work” (pp. 3–4). The social context has become significantly important because of the increased diversity in the workforce within the United States. Achieving high-quality communication is both complicated and difficult because there are innumerable opportunities for making an error in sending or receiving messages. Any internal or external interference or distraction in communicating the intended message is deemed noise. For example, poor handwriting, a poor telephone connection, a bad toner in the fax machine, and so forth may make communication unclear by introducing noise. Such noise can occur at any stage in the communication process. More discussion on the sources of noise and how to reduce them to promote effective communication is provided later in the chapter. Organizational Needs Fulfilled by Communication The act of communication is embedded in every management function. However, the three express purposes of communication are to provide information, motivate workers, and coordinate their efforts, with the intention of accomplishing organizational goals (Conger, 1998; Scott & Mitchell, 1976). A basic function of communication is to provide information to the employees to help them perform their daily jobs effectively. For example, Those in corrections want and need to know about the history of an individual entering an institution. Has the offender received medical treatment and vaccinations for potentially contagious diseases? Does he or she have a history of violence toward police or other inmates? And, upon release, parole officers should be provided with the information they need to ensure that the offender continues to receive the treatment he or she needs in the community. (Weedon, 2003, p. 18) The information exchange may also take the form of feedback, which is an assessment by managers or administrators and certain departments of the quality and quantity of work performed by workers and other departments. Typically, such knowledge is more important when a worker has just started a new job or when changes are made. When changes are initiated within an organization, clear communication of new tasks, goals, and responsibilities can help ensure that everyone understands what is expected of them to achieve organizational goals. In policing, for example, a formal memo may be distributed to all officers and then formally discussed during the shift staffing meetings to ensure everyone understands the change in policy or procedure. In the absence of proper communication from the supervisor or manager, a worker is left to gather information from coworkers, customers, clients, and others, which leads to service errors and compromises quality. Worker errors caused by a lack of proper information should be marked against the supervisor or manager who was responsible for getting the information to the worker instead of the worker who made the mistake. Besides conveying information, communication is used to persuade, motivate, and influence people. Managers and administrators communicate with their employees to promote the vision of the organization and influence their behaviors to accomplish the vision. Managers communicate with employees to understand their needs and motivate them to work toward the accomplishment of organizational goals. As discussed in Chapter 6, motivation is a key determinant of individual and organizational performance. Poor communication is often blamed for unmotivated workers, leading to high absenteeism and turnover. The ability to persuade and influence has become more important in the current work environment, where the command-and-control method of managing is increasingly becoming outdated. Growth in organizations introduces increasing diversification and specialization, making communication extremely vital for coordinating various tasks. By regularly communicating information about roles, rules, and norms to the group members, organizations can exert control over them. This coordination helps in the elimination of unnecessary duplication of effort and improves the overall efficiency and effectiveness. Often, it is seen that a lack of proper coordination in service and treatment programs results in wasteful actions and excess inventories. For example, failures of agencies to coordinate and communicate with one another may allow for one family to receive the same service from multiple agencies, resulting in duplication of services and resource waste. If better communication were used, the treatment providers could service more families while using fewer resources. Furthermore, communication allows the members of an organization to understand one another’s personalities, attitudes, and values, which makes it easier to work together in achieving organizational goals. Open communication allows the groups to control the behavior of team members and prevent social loafing. Press releases to the media perform another important function of communication that is unique to law enforcement agencies (see In the News 8.1). News media may be the primary sources of information for citizens to form perceptions of police legitimacy (Surette, 2001). Scholars have examined how news media affect attitudes toward police. Some studies report that such attitudes are positively influenced by consumption of mainstream news media (Escholz, Blackwell, Gertz, & Chiricos, 2002) and negatively impacted by consumption of nontraditional media such as political talk shows (Moy, Pfau, & Kahlor, 1999). In addition, “recent research on attitudes toward police has consistently found race to be a significant moderator of the effects of news media exposure” (Chermak, McGarrell, & Gruenewald, 2006, p. 263). The problem of poor relations between the police and minorities is not new. Following the bloody aftermath of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968, President Lyndon Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (also known as the Kerner Commission). The commission concluded that the police should be provided special training on ghetto problems and conditions to help improve police–minority relations (Barlow & Barlow, 1994). As the United States becomes more diverse with migration, multicultural skills become exceedingly important in managing police–minority relations. In the nearly five decades since the Kerner Commission, a great deal about minority relations and multicultural skills has been learned by communication researchers and trainers that can be applied in police training. This research emphasizes multicultural skill development that exposes officers to the influence of culture as a priority for police officers (Cornett-DeVito & McGlone, 2000). It emphasizes officers to communicate effectively with local residents in understanding what is important in each neighborhood and empowers officers to initiate creative responses to neighborhood problems (Lasley, 1994). In addition, U.S. law enforcement agencies are trying to increase minority representation, not only to make up for past deficiencies, but also to keep pace with the country’s shifting demographics. For example, in 2000, racial and ethnic minorities made up 31% of the U.S. population, which increased to 36% in 2010 and is expected to be more than 50% by 2045 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). However, in 2007 only about one in four police officers was a member of a racial or ethnic minority group. These efforts to increase minority representation will allow for more cultural diversity in the police force and allow for better understanding of different cultures and more effective communication with the residents. This is a good step toward increasing police effectiveness and perceptions of police legitimacy in the communities they serve. Research shows that media’s effects on attitudes toward police are dependent on race-specific communities (Doyle, 2003; Escholz et al., 2002; Weitzer & Tuch, 2004; Wortley, Macmillan, & Hagan, 1997). For example, Escholz et al. (2002) report that the reality show COPS produced a negative attitude toward police among African Americans because of their affinity with African American offenders. Conversely, white viewers were supportive of the police because of their affinity with the more dominant white police officers. One also needs to be mindful that the news media tend to sensationalize the events to capture viewers’ attention and compete with other news media outlets. Therefore, law enforcement agencies should be extremely careful in press releases to media to ensure that the information is decoded by the receivers the way it was intended. Referring to the media releases on high-profile cases, Chermak et al. (2006) note, Police departments must be prepared to respond to such events because they have the potential to undermine any public relations and community policing efforts. Thus it is important for police departments to evaluate their relationship with media organizations and determine how best to use the media as a mechanism to communicate department goals and objectives, as well as make an effort to provide full accounts when crises occur. (p. 274) Good understanding of communication at the organization level is important for smooth and effective functioning of criminal justice agencies. Alluding to the importance of communication in all aspects of criminal justice, Christensen (2006) notes, “No one in the corrections and law enforcement fields understand why incarceration is up 367% since 1980, and they refuse to agree on a course of action to reduce recidivism. The corrections field must adopt better communication if they intend to improve prison outcomes” (p. 51). Talking among themselves about how to improve treatment and rehabilitation could make a difference. Since police–community collaboration programs are also important in the reduction of recidivism, Arnold (2001) notes, “The law enforcement leaders must communicate their visions and expectations and provide the tools needed to achieve an objective, and hold their people accountable” (p. 150). In the News 8.1 Formatting a Press Release Every police department needs to have at least one person who knows how to send out press releases to the media. Many departments develop their own styles, but we have asked experts in public relations on their advice to create the best, most effective press releases. Each press release should be on letterhead. Press releases that are posted on the Internet do not need to be a scanned version of the hard copy. The letterhead signals to the media where the press release came from, but if the release is on the police department’s Web site, this information is obvious. At the top of the press release include a date, name and contact information. Make sure to provide a phone number and e-mail address if applicable. The media need to be able to get a hold of this officer at the last minute so provide as much contact information as possible. Under the contact information let the media know if the information is for immediate release or if it is to be held for a later release date. For example, if it is election time and the sheriff does not plan on running again, the department may notify the media but say, “embargoed for release until November 1.” This will give the media enough time to go ahead and do a story and possibly interview the sheriff but hold the story until November 1. After the release date, give the press release a headline. Headlines can be bold, underlined, centered and slightly larger than the body of the press release. The lead paragraph of the press release is where you will give the five Ws. “Every news story should contain the five Ws and an H: who, what, where, when, why and how,” David Shank, president of Shank Public Relations Counselors, said. The first and second paragraph is what Debbie Anglin, of Anglin Public Relations, calls the “so what?” She says to think like the newspaper reader would think. How would this story affect a reader; why should he read it? If the press release was about car safety seat checks, this would be the information that says how many children get hurt by improperly secured safety seats—information that would be important to a parent who was reading the story. After all the hard facts and important information is given, now would be the time to provide a background paragraph. If the press release is about a safety program done by the department, explain how long this program has been running, how it got started, how it is funded, etc. This information is not vitally important to the story, so it does not go in the first paragraphs. When creating the press release keep in mind that different types of media require different things. Television stations and newspapers require pictures. Give the reporter some ideas for pictures. If the press release is about an officer retiring, invite the reporter to the retirement party. Not only will the retirement party give the reporter an opportunity to take pictures, but will give the reporter a chance to talk to other officers who know and care about the retiring officer. If a press release is going to a radio station, think in sound bites. If an officer is diagnosed with cancer and fellow officers shave their heads in support, this is a feel-good kind of story and a radio station might want to talk to one of the officers and ask why he shaved his head. The interview is usually very short and can be done by phone, but adds a lot of depth to the story. Don’t send out press releases to every media contact; narrow it down to the appropriate editors. For example, the press release about the officers shaving their heads would be appropriate for a community editor but not a business editor. If the police department sends a press release about ways to stay safe at Halloween and it doesn’t run in a timely manner, feel free to call the editor. Maybe it just got overlooked or the editor needed more information but didn’t have the chance to call. Ask if he got the press release and needs any additional information. Keep the body text of the press release at 10 or 12 [point] size and the font in a standard style like Times New Roman. It is also a good idea to double space press releases and to not let them run past two pages. Editors want the information quickly; they don’t want to have to read an entire book to find out about an upcoming event. Finally, at the end . . . type “\\\#\#” to signify the end of the press release. SOURCE: From “Formatting a Press Release,” by C. Whitehead, July 2004, Law and Order, 52(7), p. 20. Interpersonal Communication There are three modes of interpersonal communications, namely, verbal, written, and nonverbal, which may be used individually or in some combination for effective communication. In a study, Albert Mehrabian (1968) found that the relative weight in message interpretations is as follows: verbal impact, 7%; voice tone impact, 38%; and facial impact, 55%. The strong message of this research was that “it’s not what you say but how you say it.” Therefore, managers need to learn to use their nonverbal cues to complement and support their verbal and written messages. When the written, verbal, and nonverbal messages are contradictory, the receiver may be confused. Thus, it is extremely important for criminal justice professionals to ensure that the message being communicated through the use of different modes is consistent. Oral or verbal communication. All forms of spoken information comprise oral communication. It is the most popular mode of communication among administrators, taking the form of face-to-face communication and telephone communication. Written communication. Letters, memos, reports, policy manuals, and other documents comprise written communication. Though less preferred to oral communication, written communication is typically desired when evidence for later use is required (as is always the case in criminal justice). On a lighter side of written (mis)communication, one of the participants in a workshop narrated the following story. This human resource manager presented her half-yearly report on the employees’ performance to her director, in which she had written “outstanding” next to the names of some of the employees. The director, without checking the contents of the report, congratulated these officers, which the manager found rather ridiculous. She had written “outstanding” across the names of the employees who were delinquent in filling out their half-yearly reports, but the director interpreted “outstanding” as meaning exceptional work had been accomplished by those employees. These miscommunications are of a greater concern in law enforcement services, where the demographics of officers are changing in line with the overall demographic changes in the United States. There has been an increase in people in the force whose first language is not English, which is the primary language of written communication in law enforcement agencies. Emphasizing the importance of written communication in law enforcement, Servino (1999) notes, “Judges and attorneys report that police officers’ lack of written communication skills is a growing problem. Police administrators need to enforce minimum standards to ensure effective communication takes place” (p. 23). It is also important to note here that a police officer’s written report does not stay with the police department but accompanies the case through court and into corrections as the offender moves through the process. For the case to be successfully processed, the officers have to convey their messages clearly so quality services can be provided at all levels of criminal justice. Nonverbal communication. The act of communication can take place without talking or writing, but instead involving actions, gestures, symbols, and behaviors, which are termed nonverbal (Mehrabian, 1968; 1972). In addition, nonverbal communication may accompany verbal communication, generally through unconscious or subconscious cues. For example, movement of eyes, change of facial expressions, voice tone, mannerisms, posture, touch, and dress may reflect some forms of communication within the context in which verbal communication is taking place. Maximum potential for miscommunication through nonverbal cues happens in crosscultural communication. Gender differences can also contribute to nonverbal communication challenges, though these tend to be minor compared to cultural influences. Training in law enforcement often teaches officers to observe the body gestures and movements of individuals they question. According to Kiernan (2007), “The ability to read an emotion without benefit of a spoken or understood communication capability would seem an indisputable precept of training at all levels of law enforcement.” She points out that “the law enforcement officers have limitless opportunities to apply this training in daily operational activity whether dealing with civil or criminal issues and are better prepared when confronted with a new form of adversary” (p. 47). At the same time, officers need to be careful of the nonverbal signals and messages they send to suspects. Pinizzotto and Davis (1999) reported on FBI research on various aspects of law enforcement safety related to the nonverbal communication cues that offenders perceive during their interaction with police officers. They concluded, “Law enforcement officers must remember that while they observe nonverbal messages from the individuals they question, these individuals also gather information from them. Subtle nuances that others would not view as weaknesses become opportunities for human predators to exploit. Law enforcement officers must protect themselves against such individuals who search for easy prey and strike with little or no warning” (p. 4). Fitch and Means (2013) have proposed a very interesting IMPACT model of interpersonal communication, where each letter stands for one of the six principles of effective communication. (1) Identify and manage emotions. Most people think of themselves as rational human beings who make decisions based on logic and rationality. Yet when things go wrong the emotions kick in and the logic is thrown out of the window. People become unreasonable and uncooperative because the emotional brain (limbic system) has overridden the rational thinking areas of the brain. A well-trained officer should be trained to diffuse the emotions so that effective communication can take place. Empathizing with and acknowledging a person’s concerns and feelings make the person feel that the officer is trying to help, which reduces emotional tension. This show of concern does not mean that the officer agrees that these concerns are legitimate. Subsequently, the officer should ask questions because it forces people to pause and think. The officer should paraphrase to check for understanding and to correct any confusion. (2) Master the story. Relying on internal attribution can be dangerous, as it encourages impulsive and rash conclusions and suppresses empathy, thus jeopardizing communication. However, seeing things from another person’s perspective is important because it requires officers to suspend their assumptions and listen carefully to understand and master the story, which improves communication. (3) Promote positive behavior. People have an innate need to feel safe and control their lives. When people feel threatened or controlled, they act negatively by becoming aggressive. Officers can help people feel safe by reducing uncertainty by educating them about their decisions, actions, the rest of the process, and what to expect. The whole process can be intimidating for those who have never been exposed to the criminal justice system. Most people know little about the policies, procedures, and laws that most officers take for granted. In addition, officers should separate problems from people. Rather than questioning or attacking someone’s motives or intent, which at best can only be a guess, the officer should focus on the person’s objective conduct. For example, “Were you on your cell phone when you ran the stop sign and hit the car?” Such behavior from the officer will be more threatening to a person’s self-esteem or sense of control, and is more likely to produce uncooperative behavior resulting in failed communication. (4) Achieve rapport. Instead of reacting impulsively to difficult situations, officers should provide a calming effect by not striking back to rude and uncooperative people. Such positive reinforcement will break down the barrier and allow for people to become more communicative with the officer. (5) Control your response. Officers should never lose control of their response, despite all distractions that may arise from uncooperative citizens. Very often, strong emotions may cloud the real issues, but an officer should be able to sift through these emotions and identify the issues and respond to them objectively. An officer needs to learn to respond to the issue. Communication Channels Among the different channels of communication are face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memos or letter writing (Dunham, 1984; Lewis et al., 2001). The speed of the flow of communication through these channels can often be very slow, which makes it a critical factor in a service industry. Research has shown that each channel has a different capacity to convey information, often termed as channel richness. The hierarchy of channel richness is determined by three characteristics: (1) the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; (2) the ability to facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and (3) the ability to establish a personal focus for the communication. Face-to-face is the richest medium of communication because it allows direct experience of multiple information cues, immediate feedback, and personal focus. Senders can provide instant clarification to any ambiguous information until a common understanding is reached. Videoconferencing is the next in richness because it does not provide all forms of nonverbal cues. Some of the cues get lost during the electronic focus of the camera. Telephone conversations are next in the richness hierarchy because they do not allow personal contact, and hence, most of the nonverbal cues are missing. However, both videoconferencing and the telephone allow the receiver to get instant clarification. E-mail has gained increasing popularity as a communication channel because of its low cost and convenience. However, e-mail messages lack both verbal and nonverbal cues, thus increasing the chances for misunderstandings. Written letters and memos can be personally focused, but they convey only the cues written on paper and are often slow to provide feedback; thus, they are lower in the channel richness hierarchy. The lowest on this hierarchy would be the impersonal written media, including fliers and bulletins, which are general in nature and do not focus on a single receiver, lack most cues, and do not permit feedback. Though there is a channel richness hierarchy, it is important to understand that each communication channel has advantages and disadvantages, making them appropriate for different circumstances. For example, face-to-face communication is rich in context but may be very expensive in terms of cost and time to bring all parties together. On the other hand, e-mail is extremely inexpensive but does not have the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; does not facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and is low in its ability to establish a personal focus for the communication. As general advice to managers and administrators in choosing the appropriate communication medium, it is suggested that they must select a rich channel for effective communication of nonroutine and complicated messages. Nonroutine communication tends to concern new events and is generally ambiguous, involving greater potential for misunderstanding. Managers should use multiple communication media for important and complex messages, to ensure the full gist is understood by the receiver; for example, managers could use both formal announcements in staff meetings as well as memo distribution to all employees. In contrast, routine communications are typically embedded in some past context or experience that managers and administrators already agree on and understand, making them simpler. Therefore, routine messages can be efficiently communicated through a channel that is lower in richness. Think here of the police officer who uses 10 codes to communicate with the police dispatcher. When the communication is official and a permanent record needs to be maintained, written communication is more appropriate. Written communication of all events and interactions with the public or clients is mandatory in criminal justice, as noted in the common saying among criminal justice professionals, “If it’s not in writing, it didn’t happen.” The key to this entire discussion is to select a channel to fit the message. Organizational Communication Communication within an organization can be effective when both the formal and informal organizational channels of communication are supportive. These channels can be supplemented by the managers with the use of informal channels to gather and disseminate information. Formal Communication The formal communication network is mirrored in the chain of command in an organization. The primary forms of communication flow are vertical (both downward and upward) and horizontal (Daft & Steers, 1986). To promote speedier exchange of information, learning organizations emphasize horizontal communication between workers across departments and levels. Electronic communication such as e-mail and instant messaging has made it easier for information to flow in all directions. In vertical communication, there is an exchange of information between different levels in an organization. The communication flows upward or downward through the chain of command. Communication in corrections flows down the chain of command from the warden through the assistant wardens of operations and programs to the majors, lieutenants, sergeants, and so forth until reaching the correctional officers working with the inmates. Figure 8.2 illustrates the communication flow in the security division of a prison. The assistant warden of operations would also use downward communication with the various directors and other personnel under his or her command. The messages and information sent by the senior management to their subordinates comprises downward communication. Since it is neither required nor possible for managers to communicate everything that happens within an organization, an important managerial decision is made regarding what information they need to communicate downward (Clampitt, DeKoch, & Cashman, 2000). To facilitate the day-to-day smooth functioning of the agency, downward communication in an organization typically would be composed of the following: 1. One of the important tasks of management is to communicate the big picture and information about specific targets and direction for lower levels as new strategies and goals are formulated. For example, police chiefs may want to communicate to all of their officers the big picture of the changed environment and the new initiatives to be taken to fight terrorism. 2. To facilitate implementation of modified goals and strategies, the management needs to communicate directives on how specific tasks should be done, along with the rationale for why these tasks need to occur. 3. At greater levels of specificity, the management needs to provide policies, rules, regulations, and benefits accompanying each task. 4. Management needs to provide directives on how the performance will be evaluated at the end of each task. This will form the feedback on the performance of individuals and, collectively, the performance of the departments. 5. To have workers attain their targets and fulfill the company’s vision and mission, the management must communicate motivating statements to workers on a continuous basis. Sergeants have to ensure that their officers go home safely at the end of the day and continue to stay motivated to help fight crime. The common methods of downward communication are through face-to-face addressing, speeches using the internal audio-visual media, messages in company newsletters or individual leaflets, e-mails, bulletin boards, and company manuals (London, 1999). All of these methods are typically one-way communications, as they do not encourage feedback. Another unfavorable factor that impacts this type of communication is the number of levels that the information needs to travel to reach all of the employees. Approximately 25% of information is typically lost each time it is passed from one person to the next (Lewis et al., 2001). Such information loss cannot be avoided in downward communication, though it can be reduced substantially by following the steps of effective communication described later. Messages that flow from lower to higher levels in an organizational hierarchy are termed upward communication. Typically, such communication allows feedback on management initiatives or report progress, and permits employees to air their grievances (Frese, Teng, & Wijnen, 1999; Glauser, 1984; Love, 1998; Lurie, 1999), all of which is a reflection of a healthy and progressive organization. Figure 8.2 Illustration of Downward Communication in a Correctional Facility Organizations must facilitate upward communication, as it provides them an opportunity to benefit from ideas and inputs from people at all levels and gives them an understanding of the general environment at the lower level. Progressive organizations provide suggestion boxes, open-door policies, employee surveys, and opinion polls, as well as town hall kinds of face-to-face meetings between workers and upper management, to allow undistorted information to reach them. The upper-level managers are responsible for responding to messages from lower-level employees to let them know that their comments and suggestions are valued. In contrast, there are also organizations where managers are unprepared to hear employee problems, and all forms of upward communication airing grievances are quelled. The general environment is one of mistrust in such companies. Interdependence between different functions and departments creates the need to communicate between peers and coworkers within and across departments, which is called horizontal communication (Daft & Marcic, 2004). The need for this form of lateral or diagonal exchange of messages may be driven by the need to coordinate activities, seek support of members, or simply share information among members within the same department or with members in other departments. Horizontal communication is greatly valued in learning organizations, which are based on little hierarchy and a culture that promotes participation and teamwork. The attention in these organizations is on problem solving and continuous modification of the process to promote flexibility and adaptability. Crossjurisdictional and crossdisciplinary events have become more significant in the law enforcement field in recent years. Within this changing context, Mulholland (2004) discusses the need to develop an effective means for real-time communication among various law-enforcing agencies at a crime scene. Bayless (2004) discusses the measures undertaken by Los Angeles to counter the threats of terrorism, which suggests the effective tactics of communicating among local, state, and federal operations. One of the most important elements of this communication strategy is the use of high-speed communication technology to rapidly contact people in times of crisis (Bayless, 2004). Universities around the United States have implemented emergency warning systems to alert faculty, staff, and students of potentially dangerous situations as a result of the recent school shootings on college campuses (Zalud, 2004). Emergency warnings are sent across e-mail systems, by cell phone, by text message, and through landline telephones to all affected parties. This real-time, horizontal communication pattern allows for better coordination of emergency services and a safer environment for the employees and students. Communication in certain groups takes place in specific recurring patterns, which develops relationships among people over time, creating what are termed communication networks (George & Jones, 2002; Rogers & Rogers, 1976). If the members differ in ranking, then those with higher ranking are likely to dominate the communication network. The size of this formal or informal group will impact the effectiveness of communication within the network. Therefore, communication networks will be highly complex in a 15-member group, unlike in a 5-member group. There are special types of horizontal communications, which are classified as the wheel, the chain, the circle, and the all-channel network (George & Jones, 2002). • The wheel network is a centralized network where team members do not communicate directly with one another but must report to one individual who is the sole sender of messages to other group members. Essentially, all information flows to and from this central member. Such networks are very effective when group members work independently, but group performance is determined by summing up the performance of the members of the group. For example, groups of sales representatives have little need to communicate directly with one another, but must communicate with the formal or informal leader of the group. These networks would work well in team sports such as swimming, track, or golf, where the coach communicates and coordinates with the entire team, and the team members can perform their tasks with minimal direct communication with the rest of the team. The wheel network can also be seen in prison systems. A central control booth regulates the entire prison building. All communication must pass through the person operating the control booth, whether it be a request to open a cell door or information concerning the movement of an inmate from one place to another. The officers in the correctional units operate independent of one another within each unit but are each dependent on the control booth to be in command of the facility. In another example, the dispatcher of the local sheriff’s office performs wheel network communications. The sheriff’s deputies work independent of one another while constantly maintaining contact with the dispatcher at a central location. • A chain network is common when there is sequential task interdependence, which has no hierarchical implications. In such networks, there is a predetermined communication flow with members communicating with individuals on either side of them in the chain. One can see such networks on a company shop floor that has an assembly-line mode of manufacturing. Sometimes, chain networks may support hierarchical positioning within a group. For example, in a sit-down restaurant there is a network chain from the manager to the head chef, the sous chef, wait staff, busser, and cleaning people. Communication within this group essentially goes up and down the hierarchy. Likewise, in a juvenile facility, workers pass cases from one to another with little difficulty. Each worker has a specific task, which, once completed, leads the case to the next worker. The intake officer will perform the duties necessary to process a child into the facility. Once these duties are completed, the intake officer will pass the case to the court officer for preparation. The court officer handles the initial jurisdictional, adjudication, and disposition hearings. After disposition is ordered, the court officer will send the file to a probation officer who will ensure that the court’s orders are carried out. If there is a need for institutionalization, the probation officer will communicate with the treatment provider and will monitor the case with a caseworker inside the treatment facility. All communication is done by phone and through record keeping in the child’s case file. • Circle networks occur within groups whose members are similar on some dimension, such as an area of expertise, location of offices, sitting arrangements during meetings, and the like. For example, within a university setting, the professors within a department who share similar expertise communicate with one another. These networks are fairly decentralized. Specialties in criminal justice operate in the same fashion. Those officers working in community-oriented policing communicate and coordinate with one another on programming, innovative ideas, and problems or concerns they discover in the area they patrol. Probation officers working with sex offenders hold staffing meetings as well as communicate informally about cases and potential treatment issues or possibilities on a regular basis. Circle networks work well in specialized units within criminal justice agencies. • All-channel networks are least centralized and create the possibility for maximum participation of all members in the group. They are typically found in organizations or subgroups involved in complex work premised on reciprocal task interdependence, which requires every group member to communicate with every other group member. For example, within a hospital, the emergency room personnel would support an all-channel network; a new product team may support an all-channel network within a company; and a special operations task force, such as a special weapons and tactics (SWAT) team, would support an all-channel network in policing. These networks work well in team-oriented sports such as basketball, ice hockey, soccer, and football that require a high degree of member coordination. No single network will prove effective in all situations. If the wheel network is overused because it is low in cost, where superiors instruct subordinates, then there may be dissatisfaction among the group members. These group members may have very low motivation to contribute to the group’s overall effectiveness. Furthermore, teams should match the network type with their goals and tasks for high communication performance. If the problems are simple and the tasks require little member interdependence, then the wheel network will work best. An all-channel network in such a situation would be highly inefficient. Team members will feel bored with meetings and consider such meetings a waste of time. Moreover, all-channel networks have higher labor cost, as they involve all team members at all times. Formal communication is generally slower. There is a strong belief among many (see In the News 2.2 in Chapter 2) that the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States could have been prevented if the information had flowed faster through the formal channels involving various law enforcement agencies. Despite the loosely connected information exchange, formalized communication networks play some crucial roles. In large organizations, they allow for better coordination of tasks that may be spread out among various agencies and functions. By reducing miscommunication, they cut down duplication of work and eliminate unnecessary waste. However, in the real world if one were to examine the communication in a large police department, one would find it hard to strictly match it with any of the methods described here. People are not typically segregated by cubicles or partitions. Normally, there are police officers of different ranks, complainants, and other staff interacting with one another in the hallway, seated, standing, or moving about in different directions. Therefore, the formal decision making follows the direction prescribed by these formal channels, but communication is a lot more loosely connected to social relationships. In addition, the rapidly changing information technology is altering information sharing and communication strategies. Informal Communication Information that flows outside the formally authorized channels and does not adhere to the hierarchy of authority is called informal communication. Such communication tends to connect everyone in the organization. Interpersonal social interactions are inevitable in the workplace, and these form the basis for informal communications. Two types of informal channels used in many organizations (Daft & Marcic, 2004) are described next. Management by Wandering Around Many executives mingle and talk directly with employees when they are walking through the company or across the shop floor, thus avoiding the vertical and horizontal chains of command (Peters & Waterman, 1982). By developing open communication with employees through such informal means, these executives learn more about their departments, divisions, and organizations. Most executives supplement the information gathered through formal channels with information from informal channels. In the working of large police departments, a lot of informal communication takes place in the hallways, at water coolers, in the washrooms, on the elevators, in the locker rooms, and so forth. The Grapevine Another form of informal communication takes place typically in person-to-person networks of employees, which are not officially endorsed by the organization (Davis & Newstrom, 1985). Also known as spontaneous communication, these channels are opportunistic and informal, and evolve from social relationships that develop within an organization. Close proximity, similarities in work activities, common interests, and shared values and social characteristics all promote informal communication among individuals. The grapevine cuts across all vertical and horizontal chains of command and links employees in all directions, irrespective of their formal position within the company. It disseminates information much faster than do the formal channels. Though the grapevine exists at all times, it can become a dominant communication channel when the formal channels are ineffective or closed. Typically, during greater uncertainty created by changes within an organization, sagging economic conditions, introduction of new technology, or changes in senior positions, the grapevine tends to be more active. Research shows that 80% of grapevine communication pertains to business-related subject matters, with 70% to 90% accuracy (Simmons, 1985). Using a survey to collect data from 22,000 shift workers in different industries, Ettorre (1997) discovered that 55% of workers get most of their information from the grapevine. The very nature of the informal communication taking place among members results in certain distortion of information, based on individual understanding and renarrating it afterward. Such distorted information can create misunderstandings among employees. The grapevine can be harmful to an organization when wrong information is disseminated to group members. Moreover, the grapevine can be a deterrent to the enforcement of the supervisory authority because informal communication networks introduce their own set of power relations. The rumor mill can go into overdrive, creating difficult situations for administrators and the people they serve. Barriers to Effective Communication Since most people get into the act of communication without conscious thought or effort, they typically believe communication is simple. However, communication is complex, with innumerable opportunities for making an error in sending or receiving messages. Anything that interferes with a clear communication process is often termed noise or barriers. These barriers to effective communication may occur at various points in the process of communication and can be broadly classified as individual barriers and organizational barriers. Individual barriers to communication. These barriers originate from the use of jargon, the use of incorrect channel or medium of communication, filtering and information distortion, a lack of feedback or inappropriate feedback, and poor listening (Daft & Marcic, 2004; George & Jones, 2002). The use of jargon may often cause miscommunication, especially when the message is received by someone outside of the profession. Similarly, semantics can often be confusing because of the diverse interpretations of the same word. It has been found that on average each word in the English language has 28 different definitions (Stoner & Freeman, 1989), which implies that the sender must be extremely careful to choose the words that will accurately encode the intended ideas. Errors in communication may occur because of the use of an incorrect channel or medium. Poor handwriting, a poor telephone connection, and so forth are all examples of bad channels or mediums. As discussed earlier, channels of communication can be placed on a hierarchy of richness. Great consideration should be given to choosing the appropriate channel of communication to match the nature of the message to reduce the chances of communication errors. Filtering occurs when the sender does not send the entire message. Part of the message may be withheld by the sender who thinks that the receiver does not need the entire information. Sometimes, the negative part of the information may be filtered because of the fear of unfavorable reaction. Other times, information distortion or alteration may be done deliberately by the senders to serve their interests at the expense of the organization’s goals. Filtering may also occur when there are too many intermediaries through whom information has to travel. By the time the message reaches the intended receiver, it may be distorted. This distortion can be demonstrated by initiating a message that passes through several students. By the time it reaches back to the person who had initiated the message, it is completely different from what was originally said. Filtering and information distortion can be minimized by providing strict guidelines of communication, accompanied by good training so that workers know what, when, and how to communicate. Establishing trust along with efforts to solve problems and not punish people will also help reduce distortion of information. Organizations that have adopted the service quality philosophy in the workplace are more likely to encourage better communication. These organizations identify the root cause of the problem rather than dealing with only the symptom, and then try to improve the process. In such progressive, service-oriented organizations, workers know that when they communicate a problem to their superiors, they will not be punished, which discourages filtering and distortion of information. To promote good communication and eliminate as much noise as possible, managers should keep in mind the following tips: • Unless the message is clear in the person’s mind regarding what the person wants to say, chances are low that the sender will be able to communicate the idea effectively to others. • Individuals should convey the idea or information in a very direct manner, encoding it in symbols or language that the receiver will understand. For example, use of jargon or specialized terminology can often confuse the message to a receiver outside the profession. Policese works well when police are communicating with one another. But unless a receiver is familiar with the specialized language of policing and with the 10 codes, the receiver is unlikely to understand what the police officer is communicating. Using nonverbal cues is another way to support the message. • Choose the medium that is generally used to communicate with this group of people. However, keep in mind that more complicated and nonroutine messages should be communicated using a richer medium. Also, use informal channels to complement the gathering and dissemination of information. • Always state the message in a manner that forces the receiver to provide feedback. Such feedback provides a good measure of how well the message was received and interpreted by the receiver, suggesting that two-way communication is a significantly better form of communication than one-way. • Adopting a service quality approach in the organization will promote a climate of trust and openness. It focuses on identifying the root cause and not acting on the symptom. Employees report symptoms; hence, they should not be punished but encouraged to help identify the root cause. Such an approach helps build trust, promotes communication, and improves the service delivery process. • Be a good listener, and watch for nonverbal cues. Train subordinates to do the same. As an example, investigators are keen on watching for nonverbal cues when interrogating a suspect. • Individuals from one culture should pay attention to culture differences when communicating with people from other cultures. • As mentioned earlier, in the process of communication, feedback is important because it confirms that the message has been received and properly understood. Sometimes, feedback may not be provided because it may be making people feel uncomfortable, or it may be withheld deliberately by the receiver to serve personal interests at the expense of the organization’s goals. In other instances, the receivers may be inconsistent in their verbal and nonverbal feedback. When the receiver either fails to provide feedback or provides an inappropriate or inconsistent feedback, it becomes uncertain whether the message was received the way it was intended by the sender, resulting in the breakdown of communication. Certain principles that need to be observed in providing effective feedback are as follows: (a) Feedback should be specific rather than general, including specific examples elaborating on what is being recommended. It should focus on things that the sender can control; (b) feedback should be given when the receiver appears ready to accept it; (c) do not provide feedback when the receiver is angry or upset; (d) feedback should focus on the behavior or act that can be changed rather than on the person; and (e) before sending the feedback, the sender should put himself or herself in the receiver’s shoes to understand and experience the feedback the sender is about to provide. • Research and experience show that employees and customers are important sources of information. Therefore, an important tool of managerial communication is listening, both to employees and to customers, which forms an important link in the communication process model. Listening involves the skill of grasping both the verbal and nonverbal components to interpret the message fully. Only then can the manager respond appropriately. It is found that about 75% of effective communication is listening, although most people spend only 30% to 40% of their time listening, which leads to many communication errors (Nichols, 1995). The following are guidelines to becoming an effective listener (Kiechel, 1987): (a) Do not concentrate on the response, but focus on what is being said by looking at the sender and not interrupting; (b) focus on understanding what is being heard and try to sense the sender’s feelings; (c) look for both verbal and nonverbal content of messages and try to clarify when they are conflicting. Do not be afraid to ask questions to clarify and understand the message; (d) rephrase key points to ensure that the message was heard and understood in the way the sender intended; and (e) even though there may not be agreement with the sender’s message, do not distract the sender by looking at a wristwatch, tapping fingers on a table, or the like. Organizational barriers to communication. These barriers to communication are embedded in individual insensitivity to cultural diversity within a company and a general organizational culture of mistrust. Every organization is embedded in a culture. Within this overarching umbrella of organizational culture is the cultural diversity within an organization along with cultural sensitivity of the employees. Individuals are entrenched in language, religion, beliefs, and social values, all of which collectively define their culture. These cultural differences shape the filters that individuals use in their day-to-day communication. Encoding and decoding the sender’s message or the receiver’s feedback message can be potential sources for communication errors. The errors may occur because knowledge and culture act as filters that create noise when translating the symbols to meaning, causing the communication to break down. The greater the cultural differences are among employees, suppliers, and customers, the greater will be the challenges in crosscultural communication. Ethnocentrism, or the tendency to consider one’s culture and its values as being superior to others, creates problems in communication. Therefore, the greater the difference between the cultures of the sender and the receiver, the greater is the probability of miscommunication. Most people have experienced the difficulty of communicating with people who do not speak the same language. Besides different languages, the linguistic style can introduce noise. Linguistic style is the person’s way of speaking, including tone of voice, volume, speed, use of words, and so forth, all of which are sources of potential misunderstandings in crosscultural communication. In the United States, immigration accounted for a major share of the increase in the labor force in the 1990s. The migrant workers are expected to provide a growing share of the workforce in the 21st century. By the year 2020, it is estimated that Asian Americans, African Americans, and Hispanics will comprise more than 35% of the U.S. population and will form 30% of the U.S. workforce. Also by the year 2020, it is estimated that women will comprise 50% of the U.S. workforce. The growing diversity of the U.S. population is bringing challenges for criminal justice agencies to be culturally sensitive in understanding, communicating with, and serving their diverse customer base effectively, as discussed in Chapter 4. Furthermore, in the 21st century, criminal justice agencies will have to learn to work with agencies in other parts of the world because the planning of terrorist activities may be done in one country or a nexus of countries. In this new world order, where society must deal with global terror, it is important for law enforcement agencies and other criminal justice organizations to learn the skills of communicating effectively with parallel agencies in other parts of the world. This growing interdependence means that criminal justice professionals will have to learn to cross lines of time, culture, and geography to be successful. Many criminal justice professionals today need to know a second and third language and develop crosscultural understanding. Firsthand learning about other cultures can be experienced by traveling and staying abroad, by inviting people from other countries to the policing or corrections agency to do joint training, or through formal training by experts from other cultures. The mind-set needed by criminal justice professionals is to expect the unexpected and be prepared for constant change. Before engaging in work-related discussions, individuals have a need for social trust. In some companies, the organizational culture promotes trust and communication, while in many others it may stifle communication by creating distrust. A lack of trust causes defensive tactics among the communicating entities, motivating the receiver to spend much energy identifying the hidden meanings in the sender’s message. Therefore, it is extremely important to nurture and reinforce trust and honesty in the workplace environment, which eases communication and reduces the likelihood of miscommunication. Managers who spend time walking around and directly communicating across different levels tend to foster greater trust among employees. When the senior management is not careful in selecting and screening the information that needs to be shared with employees, it can cause information overload. Too much exchange of information can stifle communication by choking the channels and overloading the employees with more information than they can process. Such excess information leads to a failure to process some of the important information, processing information incorrectly, delaying the information processing, and lowering the quality of information processing. On the other hand, when people are not informed about matters that have the potential to affect them personally, the grapevine as an informal communication channel takes root within the organization. Typically, the grapevine spreads information among members when they are not informed. Once started, the grapevine spreads rapidly and is hard to control, as noted earlier in the chapter. To prevent inaccurate information from spreading, organizations need to be in constant touch with their employees. They need to provide them with up-to-date, accurate information on issues important to workers and try to keep things more transparent and easily accessible. Agencies where information is deliberately withheld on the belief that “information is power” are most likely to have grapevines filling the void left by official information. However, when agencies are transparent and information can be easily accessed by any member of the organization, grapevines find it hard to establish roots. Communication in a Learning Organization In the past, organizational hierarchies were developed in part to move information up and down the system, working with the assumption that key ideas and decisions originated at the top and were channeled downward. Most for-profit companies today assume that ideas can emerge from everyone, and the role of the manager is to facilitate open channels of communication to allow ideas, information, and knowledge to flow throughout the organization. Criminal justice agencies have been slow to realize this but are making efforts to change the cumbersome communication channels found in the traditional organizational structures. In addition, an emphasis on knowledge management and information sharing has led to the flattening of organizational structures, resulting in greater empowerment and involvement of employees, which promotes open communication. In such progressive organizations, information travels throughout the company, cutting through the functional and hierarchical levels. This form of open communication is essential for building trust and commitment to promoting common goals between groups and teams that are important components of learning organizations. Feedback is an essential component of open communication because it helps individuals and the organization to learn and improve. Feedback can be received from supervisors, coworkers, customers, suppliers, members of partner organizations, and society. Furthermore, progressive criminal justice agencies have installed the latest information technology to allow fast movement of information within the organization. As discussed in In the News 8.2, information technology keeps everyone informed, allowing these agencies to provide rapid response to any emergency situation. As discussed in In the News 8.2, along with changes in organizational structure, there is a need to integrate information technology that allows high-speed communication. When terrorism or any other law-enforcement-related crisis occurs, multiple agencies need to be coordinated to provide a quick response. High-speed technology enables rapid collection and dissemination of information, facilitating the integration of activities of law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and EMS. At the time of the crisis, this can truly make a difference in managing the situation well versus managing in chaos. High-speed communication can also prepare law enforcement agencies to prevent a crisis from developing (for example, traffic congestion because of an accident). A variety of communication-related technologies such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), digital imaging of fingerprints, laptop computers, mobile radios, video cameras, night vision/electro-optics, and so forth are playing a significant role in reducing crime rates, apprehending criminals, and protecting society. Crime mapping using computers allows police to identify patterns and take appropriate actions to prevent future occurrences. Digital imaging of fingerprints instead of the traditional ink-and-paper method allows law enforcement agencies to transfer records electronically to the FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Cellular phones and mobile radios allow the officers to communicate with their headquarters from the crime scene, and to ask for any additional officers if needed. GPS software allows officers to pinpoint their exact location for the dispatcher, who can identify the shortest and fastest route to the crime scene. All in all, new and effective communication channels in criminal justice have made these agencies better and more efficient in carrying out their responsibilities. In the News 8.2 Communicating Through Crisis Terrorism is no longer reserved for foreign countries. It is now a reality in the United States of America, spawned by the atrocities that occurred on September 11th. Nor is the threat of terrorism confined to New York or Washington, D.C. The threat spans coasts and traverses county lines. As one of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States, Los Angeles has undertaken measures to prepare itself for this threat. These measures have included working on the state and federal level to reassess procedures and examining the effectiveness of current plans and operations. Self-assessment such as this has become commonplace in law enforcement agencies throughout America. Yet, with all of these efforts and increased awareness, one constant overlaps all homeland security efforts. That constant is communication. Communication is perhaps the most essential element of effective law enforcement in the war on terror. One of the most effective tactics for communicating in a crisis—such as a terrorist attack—utilizes technology known as high-speed communication. This technology enables law enforcement agencies to rapidly contact as many people as necessary in a time of crisis. Within minutes, important messages are delivered to neighborhoods, public officials, business districts and countless other individuals and groups. In essence, notification technology serves as a communication ladder, providing links between law enforcement officials and important target audiences from the ground up. In the immediate aftermath of a terrorist incident, the police or sheriff’s department is consumed with activity. A normally quiet precinct or department instantly becomes the communication hub for an entire city, potentially on the brink of chaos. In the early stages, gathering accurate information is critical. However, precisely interpreting that information and efficiently disseminating it to the public and private sectors is without a doubt the most important step in communicating during a crisis. Law enforcement command staff must take time to define their specific audiences and the messages that need to reach those individuals or groups. The first task at hand is intelligence gathering: What has happened? Who has been affected? Where did the incident or attack take place? Are people or property still in danger? How much time is there? Being thorough on the front end, anticipating problems and targeting essential audiences will save time and energy. Once these questions have been asked and answered, officers can then begin the process of notifying the community at large. The Technology Given the unpredictable nature of terrorist attacks and the potential for significant loss of life and property damage, high-speed notification technology is one of law enforcement’s greatest allies. A single dispatcher can reach literally thousands of people in a matter of minutes. It is proven technology: Law enforcement agencies, military bases, Fortune 500 companies and the highest levels of national government have high-speed notification systems operational 24 hours a day. With this technology, recipients can receive time-sensitive, crucial messages on cell phones, by e-mail, pagers, fax and landline telephones. The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department utilizes a high-speed notification system developed by DCC (Dialogic Communications Corporation) called “The Communicator.” The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department has used it in numerous scenarios, such as bank robberies, child abductions/disappearances and severe weather conditions. However, after September 2001, the department began thinking of situations in which high-speed notification might be required to enhance communication in homeland security efforts. Essentially, high-speed notification functions like a phone tree, without expending the time and energy of valuable human resources. The software is designed to retain an unlimited contact list, which should be updated consistently to ensure accuracy. The list can be manipulated from a single personal computer. Dispatchers pre-record, or record in real time, voice and text messages that can be distributed to a designated contact list with a click of the mouse. The message is sent with lightning speed, arriving via each contact’s preferred form of communication in minutes. Through an innovative GIS mapping interface, the high-speed notification software can alert any designated audience or targeted geographic area—a specific city street, a block of a downtown business district, or a tri-county area, for example. The mapping interface can be extremely beneficial when the threat may only occur in one specific area, or if different messages are required for different audiences in different locations. Another important function, which pertains specifically to first responders, is the “status report” feature. This allows the dispatcher to know who has responded to his or her call for assistance and when they will arrive. “The Communicator” software may also be programmed to continue calling first responders until a designated number of contacts has been made. Once that threshold has been reached, the system discontinues calling. This avoids the problem of unneeded personnel arriving on the scene and confusing relief efforts. Because databases can and should be built before an attack, law enforcement agencies can take pains up front to anticipate every possible audience they might need to reach. If this important step is taken, then in the event of an actual emergency, a dispatcher can record alerts and messages immediately after the scope of the attack has been determined and deliver it without hesitation to the appropriate recipients. This proactive measure of pre-built databases brings up a particularly crucial point: Know your audiences. Discuss each audience internally in your agency one by one. How quickly will each one need to know that an attack has occurred? Who inside the agency should record the message? Will certain types of terrorist attacks make some citizens more vulnerable than others? Once a specific group of contacts has been identified, spend time discussing the best way to communicate with each. For example, the technology could be used to alert thousands of people that the water supply has been contaminated or that a bomb has been detonated in a downtown shopping district. Thought should be given to how that message should be delivered to avoid a stampede of citizens into or out of the affected area. Also, prioritize the calls before a disaster occurs. If the water supply has been contaminated, should the water department or the affected neighborhoods be contacted first? Following is a breakout of specific target groups that will likely appear on every law enforcement agency’s contact database. First-Response Teams If public safety officials learned but one thing from September 11th, it was that response time and coordination among responders are truly the make-or-break factors. Firefighters, law enforcement officers and EMS units mobilized quickly and worked together in fluid precision. As a result, lives were saved. First-response teams will generally be the first audience contacted in the event of a terrorist attack. These professionals are first on the scene, not only to provide medical attention and emergency response, but also to stabilize the inevitable panic that ensues following a violent episode. That is why it is so important to communicate with these men and women quickly and accurately. With a high-speed notification system in place, these responders are better equipped to handle the situation once they arrive at the incident scene. Even a small amount of incident-specific information can greatly enhance their level of success. For example, if terrorists attacked a certain neighborhood by using a chemical weapon, the high-speed notification system would deliver a first-response message briefing teams about location, the toxicity of the substance and what HAZMAT equipment will be required to control the spread of the chemical. High-speed notification systems also provide feedback features that record individual responses, such as fit-for-duty status and ETAs for assembling and rotating personnel. This can also be applied to a typical call-out procedure, whether summoning on-duty or off-duty personnel. Cross-Jurisdictional When terror strikes, it is not one agency’s problem. Events of great magnitude require assistance at many levels of public safety, including local police departments and federal agencies. Because each of these groups has some degree of responsibility for the public, clear initial communication is an absolute must to avoid sending conflicting messages or premature information. In Los Angeles, for example, the sheriff’s department along with the Los Angeles Police Department, the FBI and other public safety departments have formed the Terrorism Early Warning Task Force. This consortium consists of leaders from each law enforcement branch who have the authority to make decisions on behalf of their organization. The quick and accurate sharing of information is critical with this kind of structure. High-speed notification can also be employed to alert law enforcement agencies on the outskirts of the disaster. This can potentially thwart massive traffic congestion or act as a call for more qualified manpower. In some cases, the notification may alert outlying officials that the perpetrators of an attack were seen leaving the scene in a specific vehicle. In any case, quick communication with surrounding jurisdictions could prove invaluable. Government Officials The goal of a terrorist attack is to create chaos. Chaos often occurs when appropriate groups are not aware of all of the facts and begin to speculate. It is important that they get reliable information, and quickly, in the event of an attack to minimize the spread of confusion. Government officials (local, state and federal) have an extremely important role to play in the event of an attack of this nature. One, the public needs to know that leaders are in place and managing the crisis. Two, government officials can convincingly and authoritatively deliver messages that convey factual information to various audiences. When preparing for or responding to terrorist activity, government officials have a responsibility to address and educate the public in a balanced and responsible manner. Using a high-speed notification system, law enforcement agencies can contact a wide range of important government officials and city leaders and immediately inform them of the situation’s status. Communicating facts to these officials on a state and national level will allow them to knowledgeably address the public and the news media, which is critical to preventing rumor, panic and confusion. Media The news media play one of the most vital roles in our country when dealing with issues of terror and homeland security. Television, in particular, is where people turn to learn about an impending crisis or its aftermath. For that reason, law enforcement must communicate carefully with news outlets to ensure that facts are what is reported, not speculation. Keeping the media informed will help prevent unnecessary panic. High-speed notification systems, such as “The Communicator,” can provide the media with up-to-the-minute information with a built-in bulletin board feature. Through this automated system, reporters can simply call a designated number to receive recorded information about the situation at hand. Not only does this help communicate relevant facts to the media, but it also frees up valuable personnel who otherwise would be inundated with media inquiries. By utilizing high-speed notification, law enforcement agencies can enhance their ability to control the flow of information, ensuring that facts are being reported in a time frame that is considerate of journalists’ deadlines. General Public Various messages may need to be delivered to the public in a terrorist attack, including evacuation procedures, status of survivors, shelter locations, existing threats and hospital availability. Most likely, the quantity of information that must reach different groups or people will seemingly expand with each passing hour. An explosion occurs in a residential district, for example, and that explosion triggers a massive fire. The high-speed notification system would be activated. A qualified dispatcher would send a message informing residents in the immediate vicinity of the fire and of specific evacuation procedures, such as which route to take and which areas to avoid. The law enforcement agency would then use the GIS feature to deliver messages, moving out from the fire, to residents and business owners, until all segments of the general public that could potentially be affected by the blaze have been notified and given instructions. Internal Considerations As with all technology, it is important to have competent, trained individuals in place to operate it. As it relates to high-speed notification, the dispatcher or person operating the system must possess, above all else, great judgment and the ability to regroup in a moment’s notice. Due to the quantity of information being processed, these dispatchers must have a complete understanding of the intelligence arena and the ability to decipher what is real or critical and what is not. Personnel using the high-speed notification technology must have access to technical support, should issues arise. Once a person or team is in place, then it is time to plan the communication strategy, as discussed in this article—with attention to identifying key target audiences, managing contact data and pre-recording message scenarios. But most important, planning should include test call-outs. A system that remains idle and is only used when a disaster takes place is a system that is subject to error. Work out glitches and technical issues beforehand, then test it every month or use the technology for routine public information efforts, such as closed streets or utility problems. Technology Website Available to Law Enforcement The National Sheriffs’ Association and the other premier law enforcement associations have come together in a collaborative effort to address the needs for technology standards. Sheriff Ted Kamatchus, NSA 3rd Vice President, and Sheriff Craig Webre, NSA 4th Vice President, represent NSA on the project. NSA Training Director Fred Wilson is the staff coordinator. Through this collaborative effort, a website with information and links to help law enforcement agencies with technology issues has been developed: www.leitsc.org. With the help of the U.S. Department of justice, NSA and other law enforcement associations are taking a probing look at how law enforcement agencies are operating with scarce or fewer resources. Surveys are being sent to selected sheriffs asking them to address the issues and solutions related to this matter. Sheriffs and chiefs will then be asked to attend a summit to share successes and promising practices. When the comments from the summit are recorded and tabulated, they will be included in a publication that will allow this information to be shared nationally. Once the audiences are identified, individuals in charge of operating the high-speed notification system must input the data and maintain an accurate database. With new residents arriving into metropolitan areas daily and businesses opening and closing, managing the audience information is a step that cannot be overlooked when developing a communication plan for terrorist attacks. Stay in contact with neighborhood associations and chambers of commerce. Make your network proactive and visible to the public, so that people are educated about the importance of the notification technology. Once a department has a high-speed notification system and communication strategy in place, it is vital that the individuals operating the technology continue to learn, master and incorporate new developing technologies and applications. For example, DCC offers interactive training workshops taught by experts in the high-speed notification field. Technology is always evolving, and it’s important to learn and grow with it. Conclusion Terrorism is a very real threat to our society—today and for many years to come. As law enforcement agencies strengthen their homeland security programs in response to that threat, they must also understand the role of communication in controlling chaos and providing the general public with potentially life-saving instruction. And the ability to simultaneously send time-sensitive, critical messages to thousands of individuals and varied groups is an available resource that must be tapped. SOURCE: From “Communicating Through Crisis,” by K. Bayless, March 1, 2004, Sheriff, 56(2), pp. 47–50. Sheriff magazine published by National Sheriffs’ Association. Chapter Summary • Communication is one of the most important elements of management within criminal justice agencies for providing a good quality of service. • Communication is defined as a process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities. • In the communication process, the sender encodes the information and, using a channel, sends it to the receiver, who then decodes the message and follows it with a return message to the sender. The message is considered one-way communication if there is no feedback. If there is feedback, it is considered a two-way communication. • Any internal or external interference or distraction in communicating the intended message is deemed noise, which can occur at any stage in the communication process. • Though the act of communication is embedded in every management function, the three express purposes of communication are to provide information, motivate workers, and coordinate their efforts, with the intention of accomplishing organizational goals. • There are three modes of interpersonal communications, namely, verbal, written, and nonverbal, which may be used individually or in some combination for effective communication. Managers must learn to use nonverbal cues to complement and support their verbal and written messages. • The different channels of communication are face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memo or letter writing. The hierarchy of channel richness is determined by three characteristics: (1) the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; (2) the ability to facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and (3) the ability to establish a personal focus for the communication. • Communication within an organization can be effective when both the formal and informal organizational channels of communication are supportive. Formal organizational communication can be categorized as vertical or horizontal. These channels can be supplemented by managers with the use of informal channels, such as the manager wandering around and the grapevine to gather and disseminate information. • Anything that interferes with a clear communication process is often termed as noise or a barrier. Individual barriers originate from the use of jargon, use of incorrect channels or mediums of communication, filtering and information distortion, lack of feedback or inappropriate feedback, and poor listening. Organizational barriers to communication are embedded in individual insensitivity to cultural diversity within a company and a general organizational culture of mistrust. • For-profit companies today assume that ideas can emerge from everyone. The role of the manager is to facilitate open channels of communication to allow ideas, information, and knowledge to flow throughout the organization. Although slow to adopt this concept, criminal justice agencies are moving toward this philosophy. Furthermore, an emphasis on knowledge management and information sharing has led to the flattening of organization structures, leading to greater empowerment and involvement of employees and promoting open communication. Chapter Review Questions 1. Explain the process of communication. What are the important factors for effective communication? 2. What are the three modes of interpersonal communication? Explain the importance of these modes in law enforcement and criminal justice agencies. 3. What are the different channels of communication? Explain the channel richness hierarchy in law enforcement and criminal justice agencies. 4. Explain vertical and horizontal communications. How can you improve these communications within law enforcement and criminal justice agencies? 5. Explain individual and organizational barriers to effective communication. Explain how communication barriers might interrupt the duties of a police officer. 6. Describe how each of the following communication channels may be used in criminal justice: face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memo or letter writing. 7. What is the difference between nonroutine communication and routine communication? Describe a scenario in which nonroutine communication may be used in a correctional facility. Now do the same with routine communication. 8. What is a communication network? 9. What are the communications challenges facing criminal justice? Case Study Brady Johnson is a 6-foot, 2-inch white male who weighs approximately 260 pounds. He has openly admitted to having a drug problem. During previous prison stays, he attended Narcotics Anonymous meetings, although he claims that he sniffed heroine while in prison. He has been arrested many times for burglary, assault, robbery, and drug possession. In 2008, Johnson went to trial for attempted murder charges but was found not guilty. Eventually, he was imprisoned in the Viking Correctional Center after being convicted on burglary, assault, and possession charges. His sentence was four years. At best, he should be released in October 2012. Recent DNA advancements linked Johnson to a sexual assault involving a 5-year-old female in Bardolph County. An indictment in that county was issued, and the judge in that case ordered him to be held without bond. However, after only 15 months in prison, Johnson was released from the Viking Correctional Center. According to the prison, a record of the indictment was placed in Johnson’s file by an office clerk but went unnoticed by releasing officers prior to his release. The releasing officers claim they were only provided his personal property information. They have stated that they did not have the opportunity to review his entire file. This is the second offender released after being indicted by the Bardolph County State’s Attorney’s Office. Two months ago, a four-time-convicted rapist was released as a result of miscommunication between the two agencies. Approximately two weeks after his release, he allegedly raped a woman at a bus stop. He is currently being held without bond as he awaits a trial in that incident. Court records show that the Bardolph County prosecutors had difficulty communicating with the state prison officials about Johnson. The prison had failed on two previous occasions to bring him from the prison for hearings on the sexual assault charges. The district attorney’s office had gone so far as to write a formal letter of complaint to the prison warden. The warden did not respond to the complaint, and as yet the correctional facility has not acknowledged receipt of the letter. Questions for Review 1. What is/are the communication barrier(s) in this case? Why do you believe these occurred? 2. Who is at fault—the prison, the prosecutor’s office, the process on which indictments and release procedures are based, or all of these? Are any other agencies at fault? If fault lies with the procedures, how can these be changed or enhanced to allow for better communication between the agencies? 3. Liability is always an issue in corrections. If Johnson harms someone else while free, who is liable? Why? 4. How could service quality be built into the responses of the prosecutor’s office and the prison? Who are the customers that they serve? Internet Resources • National District Attorneys Association—http://www.ndaa.org • National Youth Gang Center—http://www.iir.com/nygc • U.S. Office of Justice Programs, News Center— http://ift.tt/2hRjREo References and Suggested Readings Adler, R. B., & Rodman, G. (1988). Understanding human communications (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. Aldag, R. J., & Kuzuhara, L. W. (2002). Organizational behavior and management: An integrated skills approach. Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. Andersen, P. A. (1999). Nonverbal communication: Forms and functions. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Arnold, J. (2001, July). Leadership void or poor communication? Law and Order, 49(7). Barlow, D., & Barlow, M. (1994). Cultural diversity training in criminal justice: A progressive or conservative reform? Social Justice, 20, 69–84. Bayless, K. (2004, March 1). Communicating through crisis. Sheriff, 56(2). Chermak, S., McGarrell, E., & Gruenewald, J. (2006). Media coverage of police misconduct and attitudes towards police. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies and Management, 29(2), 261–281. Christensen, G. E. (2006, May/June). Fixing our system of corrections: Communicating to improve offender outcomes. Community Corrections Report on Law and Corrections Practice, 13(4). Clampitt, P. G., DeKoch, R. J., & Cashman, T. (2000). A strategy for communicating about uncertainty. Academy of Management Executive, 14(4), 41–57. Conger, J. A. (1998, May/June). The necessary art of persuasion. Harvard Business Review, 84–95. Cornett-DeVito, M. M., & McGlone, E. L. (2000). Multicultural communication training for law enforcement officers: A case study. Criminal Justice Policy Review, 11(3), 234–253. Daft, R. L., & Marcic, D. (2004). Understanding management (4th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. Daft, R. L., & Steers, R. M. (1986). Organizations: A micro/macro approach. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Davis, K., & Newstrom, J. W. (1985). Human behavior at work: Organizational behavior (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Doyle, A. (2003). Arresting images: Crime and policing in front of the television camera. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. Drafke, M. W., & Kossen, S. (2002). The human side of organizations (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Dunham, R. B. (1984). Organizational behavior: People and processes in management. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Escholz, S., Blackwell, B., Gertz, M., & Chiricos, T. (2002). Race and attitudes towards the police: Assessing the effect of watching reality police programs. Journal of Criminal Justice, 30, 327–341. Ettorre, B. (1997, June). The unvarnished truth. Management Review, 54–57. Fitch, B. D., & Means, R. (2013). The IMPACT principles: A model of interpersonal communication for law enforcement. The Police Chief, March. Frese, M., Teng, E., & Wijnen, C. J. D. (1999, December). Helping to improve suggestion systems: Predictors of making suggestions in companies. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 1139–1155. George, J. M., & Jones, G. R. (2002). Organizational behavior (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Glauser, M. J. (1984). Upward information flow in organizations: Review and conceptual analysis. Human Relations, 37(8), 613–643. Harper, R. G., Weins, A. N., & Matarazzo, J. D. (1978). Nonverbal communication: The state of the art. New York, NY: Wiley. Hellriegel, D., Slocum, J. W., Jr., & Woodman, R. W. (2001). Organizational behavior (9th ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. Kiechel, W. (1987, August 17). Learn how to listen. Fortune, 107–108. Kiernan, K. (2007, July/August). Signals hidden in plain sight. Crime and Justice International, 23(99), 47. Lasley, J. (1994). Ethnicity, gender, and police-community attitudes. Social Science Quarterly, 75, 85-97. Lewis, P. S., Goodman, S. H., & Fandt, P. M. (2001). Management: Challenges in the 21st century (3rd ed.). Mason, OH: Thomson South-Western. London, J. (1999, January). Bring your employee handbook into the millennium. HR Focus, 76(1), 6. Love, T. (1998, May). Back to the old suggestion box. Nation’s Business. Retrieved from http://ift.tt/2xiNUH2. Lurie, M. I. (1999, November). The 8 essential steps in grievance processing. Dispute Resolution Journal, 61–65. Manning, P. K. (1988). Symbolic communication: Signifying calls and the police response. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Mehrabian, A. (1968, September). Communicating without words. Psychology Today, 53–55. Mehrabian, A. (1972). Nonverbal communication. Chicago, IL: Aldine-Atherton. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Moy, P., Pfau, M., & Kahlor, L. (1999). Media use and public confidence in democratic institutions. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media, 43, 137–158. Mulholland, D. J. (2004, July). Interagency communications during major events possible. The Police Chief, 71(7), 17. Nichols, M. P. (1995). The lost art of listening. New York, NY: Guilford. Peters, T. J., & Waterman, R. H., Jr. (1982). In search of excellence. New York, NY: Harper & Row. Pinizzotto, A. J., & Davis, E. F. (1999, June). Offenders’ perceptual shorthand: What messages are law enforcement officers sending to offenders? FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, 68(6), 1–4. Rogers, E. M., & Rogers, R. A. (1976). Communication in organizations. New York, NY: Free Press. Scott, W. G., & Mitchell, T. R. (1976). Organizational theory: A structural and behavioral analysis. Homewood, IL: Richard D. Irwin. Servino, C. (1999, May). Command English. The Police Chief, 66(5). Simmons, D. B. (1985, November). The nature of the organizational grapevine. Supervisory Management, 39–42. Stoner, J. A. F., & Freeman, R. E. (1989). Management (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Surette, R. (2001). Public information officers: The civilization of a criminal justice profession. Journal of Criminal Justice, 29(2), 107. Tobias, L. L. (1989, December). Twenty-three ways to improve communication. Training and Development Journal, 43(12). U.S. Census Bureau. (2008). Table 6. Percent of the projected population by race and Hispanic origin for the United States: 2010 to 2050. Retrieved from http://ift.tt/GGdOUD. Weedon, J. R. (2003, July). The importance of information sharing among agencies. Corrections Today, 65(4), 18. Weitzer, R., & Tuch, S. A. (2004). Race and perceptions of police misconduct. Social Problems, 51, 305–325. Whitehead, C. (2004, July). Formatting a press release. Law and Order, 52(7). Wortley, S., Macmillan, R., & Hagan, J. (1997). Just deserts? The racial polarization of perceptions of criminal justice. Law & Society Review, 31, 637–676. Zalud, B. (2004, May). Getting the word out. Security, 41(5). 1. We will be using the terms manager and administrator interchangeably because what a manager is to a company, an administrator is to a public organization.

 Communication

Learning Objectives

Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to do the following:

• Define the communication process
• Discuss the different organizational needs fulfilled by communication
• Discuss the different modes of interpersonal communication
• Describe the different types of communication channels
• Explain formal and informal methods of organizational communication
• Explain individual and organizational barriers to effective communication
• Discuss how to promote good communication

One of the most famous publicized cases reflecting the importance of communication was NASA’s attempt at a Mars landing. In that instance, the landing module crashed because of miscommunication. One scientist was making calculations using the metric system, while another one was using the English system (yards versus meters), and this information never was communicated properly. Similarly, it is still believed that the 9/11 terrorist attack on the United States could have been avoided through proper and speedy communication of pertinent information among the different agencies of law enforcement. Weedon (2003) notes, “Of the lessons learned from the tragic events of that day, one of the most important is the need to effectively communicate and exchange data in a timely fashion” (p. 18). He goes on to say,

The inability of state and local law enforcement, criminal justice and related agencies to communicate and share information on a timely basis is epidemic across the nation. The lack of interoperability among police agencies, fire departments, emergency medical services and the numerous other public safety agencies is a chronic problem. In addition, the effects of the inability to communicate and share vital data among criminal justice agencies are not just felt during national emergencies but rather, on a day-to-day basis. (p. 18)

Emphasizing the importance of good and speedy communication, the chief of the Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department notes, “Communication is perhaps the most essential element of effective law enforcement in the war on terror” (Bayless, 2004, p. 47). This was demonstrated most recently in solving the 2013 Boston Marathon bombing case that left three dead and hundreds injured. The incident took place at 2:50 p.m. on Monday, April 15, near the finish line of the Boston Marathon in which more than 23,000 participated, with many times more people cheering them along the 26.2 mile route (CNN news). The task of identifying the suspects was difficult, given the number of people at the sight and with absolutely no lead. After going through thousands of hours of video footage and photographs collected from the CCTV and public, and interrogating several people, by Thursday 5 p.m. (ET) the FBI released pictures of two male suspects being sought in connection with the Boston Marathon bombings. And within 24 hours of releasing the photographs, law enforcement agencies had one suspect shot dead and the other was apprehended. All this happened through good and speedy communication among the FBI, the Department of Homeland Security, the Massachusetts State Police, residents, and many other local organizations of Massachusetts.

In the day-to-day duties performed by law enforcement agencies, miscommunication or ineffective communication can result in grave situations with serious outcomes. Think of the importance of effective communication in a 911 emergency call between the caller and the receiver, and with the various officers responding to attend to the emergency. At each exchange of information between different entities, there is a possibility for service failure because of communication error. Unfortunately, when communication goes bad in criminal justice, the effects are devastating for the system and the public alike. Therefore, to enhance public and officer safety, information systems must be used that facilitate real-time communications among law enforcement, judicial, correctional, and related agencies. There is also a need to continue developing information-sharing standards within the justice community to enable easy dissemination of information via global websites (Weedon, 2003).

In simple words, communication is one of the most important management tools within criminal justice agencies, which, when conducted effectively, promotes high service quality. It has a major impact on the performance of individuals, groups, and various agencies that collectively maintain law and order in a society. The importance of communication can be gauged from the fact that managers and administrators spend at least 80% of their workday in communication with others (Daft & Marcic, 2004, p. 480; Mintzberg, 1973). The various forms of communication that managers may be involved in during their day-to-day activities include meetings, telephone calls, the Internet, and talking informally while walking around. The other 20% of the time is typically spent in doing desk work, most of which may involve communication in the form of writing. In this chapter, communication of all kinds by both an individual and an organization is examined. At the individual level, the interest is in understanding the interpersonal aspects of communication, including communication channels, persuasion, and listening skills that influence a manager’s or an administrator’s¹ ability to communicate effectively. At the organization level, this chapter will examine different forms of communication, namely, one-way, two-way, nonverbal, upward, downward, and horizontal communication.

Career Highlight Box Paralegals and Legal Assistants

Nature of the Work

Paralegals and legal assistants do a variety of tasks to support lawyers, including maintaining and organizing files, conducting legal research, and drafting documents. Paralegals and legal assistants typically do the following:

• Investigate the facts of a case
• Conduct research on relevant laws, regulations, and legal articles
• Organize and present the information
• Keep information related to cases or transactions in computer databases
• Write reports to help lawyers prepare for trials
• Draft correspondence and other documents, such as contracts and mortgages
• Get affidavits and other formal statements that may be used as evidence in court
• Help lawyers during trials

Paralegals and legal assistants help lawyers prepare for hearings, trials, and corporate meetings. However, their specific duties may vary depending on the size of the firm or organization. In smaller firms, paralegals duties tend to vary more. In addition to reviewing and organizing information, paralegals may prepare written reports that help lawyers determine how to handle their cases. If lawyers decide to file lawsuits on behalf of clients, paralegals may help prepare the legal arguments and draft documents to be filed with the court. In larger organizations, paralegals work mostly on a particular phase of a case, rather than handling a case from beginning to end. For example, a litigation paralegal might only review legal material for internal use, maintain reference files, conduct research for lawyers, and collect and organize evidence for hearings. Litigation paralegals often do not attend trials, but might prepare trial documents or draft settlement agreements.

Law firms increasingly use technology and computer software for managing documents and preparing for trials. Paralegals use computer software to draft and index documents and prepare presentations. In addition, paralegals must be familiar with electronic database management and be up to date on the latest software used for electronic discovery. Electronic discovery refers to all electronic materials that are related to a trial, such as emails, data, documents, accounting databases, and websites.

Paralegals can assume more responsibilities by specializing in areas such as litigation, personal injury, corporate law, criminal law, employee benefits, intellectual property, bankruptcy, immigration, family law, and real estate. In addition, experienced paralegals may assume supervisory responsibilities, such as overseeing team projects or delegating work to other paralegals. Paralegal tasks may differ depending on the type of department or the size of the law firm they work for. The following are examples of types of paralegals:

Corporate paralegals often help lawyers prepare employee contracts, shareholder agreements, stock-option plans, and companies’ annual financial reports. Corporate paralegals may monitor and review government regulations to ensure that the corporation is aware of new legal requirements.

Litigation paralegals maintain documents received from clients, conduct research for lawyers, and retrieve and organize evidence for use at depositions and trials.

Work environment.

Paralegals and legal assistants work in law offices and law libraries. Occasionally, they travel to gather information and do other tasks. Paralegals who work for law firms, corporations, and government agencies usually work full time. Although most paralegals work year-round, some are temporarily employed during busy times of the year. Paralegals who work for law firms may work very long hours and overtime to meet deadlines.

Training, Other Qualifications, and Advancement

Many paralegals and legal assistants have an associate’s degree or a certificate in paralegal studies. Most paralegals and legal assistants have an associate’s degree in paralegal studies, or a bachelor’s degree in another field and a certificate in paralegal studies. In some cases, employers may hire college graduates with a bachelor’s degree but no legal experience or education and train them on the job.

Education and training.

There are several paths to become a paralegal. Candidates can enroll in a community college paralegal program to earn an associate’s degree. A small number of schools also offer bachelor’s and master’s degrees in paralegal studies. Those who already have a bachelor’s degree in another subject can earn a certificate in paralegal studies. Finally, some employers hire entry-level paralegals without any experience or education in paralegal studies and train them on the job, though these jobs typically require a bachelor’s degree.

Associate’s and bachelor’s degree programs in paralegal studies usually combine paralegal training, such as courses in legal research and the legal applications of computers, with other academic subjects. Most certificate programs provide this intensive paralegal training for people who already hold college degrees. Some certificate programs only take a few months to complete.

More than 1,000 colleges and universities offer formal paralegal training programs. However, only about 270 paralegal programs are approved by the American Bar Association (ABA).

Many paralegal training programs also offer an internship, in which students gain practical experience by working for several months in a private law firm, the office of a public defender or attorney general, a corporate legal department, a legal aid organization, or a government agency. Internship experience helps students improve their technical skills and can enhance their employment prospects.

Employers sometimes hire college graduates with no legal experience or education and train them on the job. In these cases, the new employee often has experience in a technical field that is useful to law firms, such as tax preparation or criminal justice.

In many cases, employers prefer candidates who have at least one year of experience in a law firm or other office setting. In addition, a technical understanding of a specific legal specialty can be helpful. For example, a personal-injury law firm may desire a paralegal with a background in nursing or health administration. Work experience in a law firm or other office setting is particularly important for people who do not have formal paralegal training.

Certification and other qualifications.

Although not required by most employers, earning voluntary certification may help applicants get a paralegal job. Many national and local paralegal organizations offer voluntary paralegal certifications to students able to pass an exam. Other organizations offer voluntary paralegal certifications for paralegals who meet certain experience and education criteria. For more information about paralegal certifications, see the Contacts for More Info section.

Other important qualities:

Computer skills.

Paralegals need to be familiar with using computers for legal research and litigation support. They also use computer programs for organizing and maintaining important documents.

Interpersonal skills.

Paralegals spend most of their time working with clients or other professionals and must be able to develop good relationships. They must make clients feel comfortable sharing personal information related to their cases.

Organizational skills.

Paralegals may be responsible for many cases at one time. They must adapt quickly to changing deadlines.

Research skills.

Paralegals need good research and investigative skills to conduct legal research.

Speaking and writing skills.

Paralegals must be able to document and present their research and related information to their supervising attorney.

Advancement.

Paralegals usually are given more responsibilities and require less supervision as they gain work experience. Experienced paralegals may supervise and delegate assignments to other paralegals and clerical staff.

Employment

Paralegals and legal assistants held about 256,000 jobs in May 2010. Paralegals are found in all types of organizations, but most work for law firms, corporate legal departments, and government agencies. The following industries employed the most paralegals and legal assistants in 2010: Legal services—70%; State and local government, excluding education and hospitals—9%; Federal government—6%; Finance and insurance—4%.

Job Outlook

As employers try to reduce costs and increase the efficiency of legal services, they are expected to hire more paralegals and legal assistants. Following the cutbacks experienced during the recent recession, some law firms are rebuilding their support staff by hiring paralegals. Paralegals can be a less costly alternative to lawyers and perform a wider variety of duties, including tasks once done by lawyers. This will cause an increase in demand for paralegals and legal assistants.

Employment change. Employment of paralegals and legal assistants is expected to grow from 256,000 to 302,900, which is an 18 percent growth from 2010 to 2020, about as fast as the average for all occupations. In addition, paralegals’ work is less likely to be offshored than that of other legal workers. Paralegals routinely file and store important documents and work with lawyers to gather documents for important transactions, hearings, and depositions. They frequently handle documents and take statements, which must be done in person.

Law firms will continue to be the largest employers of paralegals, but many large corporations are increasing their in-house legal departments to cut costs. For many companies, the high cost of lawyers and their support staff makes it much more economical to have an in-house legal department rather than to retain outside counsel. This will lead to an increase in the demand of legal workers in a variety of settings, such as finance and insurance firms, consulting firms, and health care providers.

However, demand for paralegals could be limited by law firms’ workloads. When work is slow, lawyers may increase the number of hours they can bill a client by doing tasks that were previously delegated to paralegals. This may make a firm less likely to keep some paralegals on staff or hire new ones until the work load increases.

Job prospects. This occupation attracts many applicants, and competition for jobs will be strong. Experienced, formally trained paralegals should have the best job prospects. In addition, many firms will prefer paralegals with experience and specialization in high-demand practice areas.

Earnings

Earnings of paralegals and legal assistants vary greatly. Salaries depend on education, training, experience, the type and size of employer, and the geographic location of the job. In general, paralegals that work for large law firms or in large cities earn more than those who work for smaller firms or in smaller cities. The median annual wage of paralegals and legal assistants was $46,680 in May 2010. The median wage is the wage at which half the workers in an occupation earned more than that amount and half earned less. The lowest 10 percent earned less than $29,460, and the top 10 percent earned more than $74,870.

In addition to earning a salary, many paralegals receive bonuses, in part, to compensate them for sometimes having to work long hours. Paralegals also receive vacation, paid sick leave, a 401 savings plan, life insurance, personal paid time off, dental insurance, and reimbursement for continuing legal education.

Source: From the Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012–13 Edition, by the U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. Available online at http://www.bls.gov/ooh.

Definition

Communication is defined as a process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities. Reaching a common understanding means that people have a fairly accurate idea of what is being communicated to them; it does not imply that people have to agree with each other (Daft & Marcic, 2004).

To improve the quality of communication, it is important to understand the communication process (Daft & Marcic, 2004; Drafke & Kossen, 2002). A prerequisite for communication is the existence of at least two entities—a receiving and a sending entity. The sender is anyone who wishes to convey the information or idea to others. Once the information or idea has been decided, then the sender encodes the information or idea into symbols or language that he or she believes the receiver can understand. The result of encoding is a message. A message is said to be clear when it contains information that is easily understood. Therefore, vocabulary and knowledge play an important role in the sender’s ability to encode (see Figure 8.1). The message is sent through a channel, which is a communication carrier such as a formal report, a telephone call, an e-mail message, or a face-to-face meeting. The receiver is the person or group for whom the information or idea is intended. On receiving the message, the receiver decodes the symbols or language to interpret the meaning of the message. This process of decoding may not always be fully successful because the receiver interprets the message based on previous experience, culture, thoughts, feelings, beliefs, and attitudes. Subsequently, the receiver responds to the sender with a return message, considered feedback, which lets the sender know whether the message was received as intended. The message is considered one-way communication if there is no feedback, but with the feedback it is considered a two-way communication (Lewis, Goodman, & Fandt, 2001). Based on observations, interviews, and records of police, Manning (1988) gives a descriptive rendition of communication among the police and between the police and the public. He examines the symbolic transformation of communication, discussing how communication is mediated by classification systems, technology, roles and tasks, and interpretations within the police force. A flow chart is presented by Manning (p. 51) to provide a visual representation of call processing in the communications center of the British Police Department.

Communication takes place within a setting defined as the social context, which has an impact on the other components of the communication process. For example, communication between a sergeant and an officer during their kids’ soccer game is more informal compared to communication in the sergeant’s office. There will be fewer interruptions during communication in the sergeant’s office, but the officer may be less outspoken in the feedback given. Manning (1988) discusses how selected factors in addition to message content impact organizational communication in law enforcement. He argues,

The police have evolved technologically sophisticated equipment to cope with increased citizen demand, but messages are received, interpreted, processed, transformed, and allocated for resolution within socially patterned relationships. Social relations, coding procedures, interpretative practices, and working rules, are derived in part from the occupational culture, shape, constrain, and pattern messages regardless of their informational content and form. (pp. 3–4)

Figure 8.1 Communication Process

Manning (1988) makes the case that “meaning is socially constructed from the occasioned relevance of message content in an organizational structure through interpretative work” (pp. 3–4). The social context has become significantly important because of the increased diversity in the workforce within the United States.

Achieving high-quality communication is both complicated and difficult because there are innumerable opportunities for making an error in sending or receiving messages. Any internal or external interference or distraction in communicating the intended message is deemed noise. For example, poor handwriting, a poor telephone connection, a bad toner in the fax machine, and so forth may make communication unclear by introducing noise. Such noise can occur at any stage in the communication process. More discussion on the sources of noise and how to reduce them to promote effective communication is provided later in the chapter.

Organizational Needs Fulfilled by Communication

The act of communication is embedded in every management function. However, the three express purposes of communication are to provide information, motivate workers, and coordinate their efforts, with the intention of accomplishing organizational goals (Conger, 1998; Scott & Mitchell, 1976).

A basic function of communication is to provide information to the employees to help them perform their daily jobs effectively. For example,

Those in corrections want and need to know about the history of an individual entering an institution. Has the offender received medical treatment and vaccinations for potentially contagious diseases? Does he or she have a history of violence toward police or other inmates? And, upon release, parole officers should be provided with the information they need to ensure that the offender continues to receive the treatment he or she needs in the community. (Weedon, 2003, p. 18)

The information exchange may also take the form of feedback, which is an assessment by managers or administrators and certain departments of the quality and quantity of work performed by workers and other departments. Typically, such knowledge is more important when a worker has just started a new job or when changes are made. When changes are initiated within an organization, clear communication of new tasks, goals, and responsibilities can help ensure that everyone understands what is expected of them to achieve organizational goals. In policing, for example, a formal memo may be distributed to all officers and then formally discussed during the shift staffing meetings to ensure everyone understands the change in policy or procedure. In the absence of proper communication from the supervisor or manager, a worker is left to gather information from coworkers, customers, clients, and others, which leads to service errors and compromises quality. Worker errors caused by a lack of proper information should be marked against the supervisor or manager who was responsible for getting the information to the worker instead of the worker who made the mistake.

Besides conveying information, communication is used to persuade, motivate, and influence people. Managers and administrators communicate with their employees to promote the vision of the organization and influence their behaviors to accomplish the vision. Managers communicate with employees to understand their needs and motivate them to work toward the accomplishment of organizational goals. As discussed in Chapter 6, motivation is a key determinant of individual and organizational performance. Poor communication is often blamed for unmotivated workers, leading to high absenteeism and turnover. The ability to persuade and influence has become more important in the current work environment, where the command-and-control method of managing is increasingly becoming outdated.

Growth in organizations introduces increasing diversification and specialization, making communication extremely vital for coordinating various tasks. By regularly communicating information about roles, rules, and norms to the group members, organizations can exert control over them. This coordination helps in the elimination of unnecessary duplication of effort and improves the overall efficiency and effectiveness. Often, it is seen that a lack of proper coordination in service and treatment programs results in wasteful actions and excess inventories. For example, failures of agencies to coordinate and communicate with one another may allow for one family to receive the same service from multiple agencies, resulting in duplication of services and resource waste. If better communication were used, the treatment providers could service more families while using fewer resources. Furthermore, communication allows the members of an organization to understand one another’s personalities, attitudes, and values, which makes it easier to work together in achieving organizational goals. Open communication allows the groups to control the behavior of team members and prevent social loafing.

Press releases to the media perform another important function of communication that is unique to law enforcement agencies (see In the News 8.1). News media may be the primary sources of information for citizens to form perceptions of police legitimacy (Surette, 2001). Scholars have examined how news media affect attitudes toward police. Some studies report that such attitudes are positively influenced by consumption of mainstream news media (Escholz, Blackwell, Gertz, & Chiricos, 2002) and negatively impacted by consumption of nontraditional media such as political talk shows (Moy, Pfau, & Kahlor, 1999). In addition, “recent research on attitudes toward police has consistently found race to be a significant moderator of the effects of news media exposure” (Chermak, McGarrell, & Gruenewald, 2006, p. 263). The problem of poor relations between the police and minorities is not new. Following the bloody aftermath of the Democratic National Convention in Chicago in 1968, President Lyndon Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (also known as the Kerner Commission). The commission concluded that the police should be provided special training on ghetto problems and conditions to help improve police–minority relations (Barlow & Barlow, 1994). As the United States becomes more diverse with migration, multicultural skills become exceedingly important in managing police–minority relations. In the nearly five decades since the Kerner Commission, a great deal about minority relations and multicultural skills has been learned by communication researchers and trainers that can be applied in police training. This research emphasizes multicultural skill development that exposes officers to the influence of culture as a priority for police officers (Cornett-DeVito & McGlone, 2000). It emphasizes officers to communicate effectively with local residents in understanding what is important in each neighborhood and empowers officers to initiate creative responses to neighborhood problems (Lasley, 1994). In addition, U.S. law enforcement agencies are trying to increase minority representation, not only to make up for past deficiencies, but also to keep pace with the country’s shifting demographics. For example, in 2000, racial and ethnic minorities made up 31% of the U.S. population, which increased to 36% in 2010 and is expected to be more than 50% by 2045 (U.S. Census Bureau, 2008). However, in 2007 only about one in four police officers was a member of a racial or ethnic minority group. These efforts to increase minority representation will allow for more cultural diversity in the police force and allow for better understanding of different cultures and more effective communication with the residents. This is a good step toward increasing police effectiveness and perceptions of police legitimacy in the communities they serve. Research shows that media’s effects on attitudes toward police are dependent on race-specific communities (Doyle, 2003; Escholz et al., 2002; Weitzer & Tuch, 2004; Wortley, Macmillan, & Hagan, 1997). For example, Escholz et al. (2002) report that the reality show COPS produced a negative attitude toward police among African Americans because of their affinity with African American offenders. Conversely, white viewers were supportive of the police because of their affinity with the more dominant white police officers. One also needs to be mindful that the news media tend to sensationalize the events to capture viewers’ attention and compete with other news media outlets. Therefore, law enforcement agencies should be extremely careful in press releases to media to ensure that the information is decoded by the receivers the way it was intended. Referring to the media releases on high-profile cases, Chermak et al. (2006) note,

Police departments must be prepared to respond to such events because they have the potential to undermine any public relations and community policing efforts. Thus it is important for police departments to evaluate their relationship with media organizations and determine how best to use the media as a mechanism to communicate department goals and objectives, as well as make an effort to provide full accounts when crises occur. (p. 274)

Good understanding of communication at the organization level is important for smooth and effective functioning of criminal justice agencies. Alluding to the importance of communication in all aspects of criminal justice, Christensen (2006) notes, “No one in the corrections and law enforcement fields understand why incarceration is up 367% since 1980, and they refuse to agree on a course of action to reduce recidivism. The corrections field must adopt better communication if they intend to improve prison outcomes” (p. 51). Talking among themselves about how to improve treatment and rehabilitation could make a difference. Since police–community collaboration programs are also important in the reduction of recidivism, Arnold (2001) notes, “The law enforcement leaders must communicate their visions and expectations and provide the tools needed to achieve an objective, and hold their people accountable” (p. 150).

In the News 8.1

Formatting a Press Release

Every police department needs to have at least one person who knows how to send out press releases to the media. Many departments develop their own styles, but we have asked experts in public relations on their advice to create the best, most effective press releases.

Each press release should be on letterhead. Press releases that are posted on the Internet do not need to be a scanned version of the hard copy. The letterhead signals to the media where the press release came from, but if the release is on the police department’s Web site, this information is obvious.

At the top of the press release include a date, name and contact information. Make sure to provide a phone number and e-mail address if applicable. The media need to be able to get a hold of this officer at the last minute so provide as much contact information as possible.

Under the contact information let the media know if the information is for immediate release or if it is to be held for a later release date. For example, if it is election time and the sheriff does not plan on running again, the department may notify the media but say, “embargoed for release until November 1.” This will give the media enough time to go ahead and do a story and possibly interview the sheriff but hold the story until November 1. After the release date, give the press release a headline. Headlines can be bold, underlined, centered and slightly larger than the body of the press release.

The lead paragraph of the press release is where you will give the five Ws. “Every news story should contain the five Ws and an H: who, what, where, when, why and how,” David Shank, president of Shank Public Relations Counselors, said.

The first and second paragraph is what Debbie Anglin, of Anglin Public Relations, calls the “so what?” She says to think like the newspaper reader would think. How would this story affect a reader; why should he read it? If the press release was about car safety seat checks, this would be the information that says how many children get hurt by improperly secured safety seats—information that would be important to a parent who was reading the story.

After all the hard facts and important information is given, now would be the time to provide a background paragraph. If the press release is about a safety program done by the department, explain how long this program has been running, how it got started, how it is funded, etc. This information is not vitally important to the story, so it does not go in the first paragraphs. When creating the press release keep in mind that different types of media require different things. Television stations and newspapers require pictures. Give the reporter some ideas for pictures. If the press release is about an officer retiring, invite the reporter to the retirement party. Not only will the retirement party give the reporter an opportunity to take pictures, but will give the reporter a chance to talk to other officers who know and care about the retiring officer.

If a press release is going to a radio station, think in sound bites. If an officer is diagnosed with cancer and fellow officers shave their heads in support, this is a feel-good kind of story and a radio station might want to talk to one of the officers and ask why he shaved his head. The interview is usually very short and can be done by phone, but adds a lot of depth to the story.

Don’t send out press releases to every media contact; narrow it down to the appropriate editors. For example, the press release about the officers shaving their heads would be appropriate for a community editor but not a business editor.

If the police department sends a press release about ways to stay safe at Halloween and it doesn’t run in a timely manner, feel free to call the editor. Maybe it just got overlooked or the editor needed more information but didn’t have the chance to call. Ask if he got the press release and needs any additional information.

Keep the body text of the press release at 10 or 12 [point] size and the font in a standard style like Times New Roman. It is also a good idea to double space press releases and to not let them run past two pages. Editors want the information quickly; they don’t want to have to read an entire book to find out about an upcoming event. Finally, at the end . . . type “\\\#\#” to signify the end of the press release.

SOURCE: From “Formatting a Press Release,” by C. Whitehead, July 2004, Law and Order, 52(7), p. 20.

Interpersonal Communication

There are three modes of interpersonal communications, namely, verbal, written, and nonverbal, which may be used individually or in some combination for effective communication. In a study, Albert Mehrabian (1968) found that the relative weight in message interpretations is as follows: verbal impact, 7%; voice tone impact, 38%; and facial impact, 55%. The strong message of this research was that “it’s not what you say but how you say it.” Therefore, managers need to learn to use their nonverbal cues to complement and support their verbal and written messages. When the written, verbal, and nonverbal messages are contradictory, the receiver may be confused. Thus, it is extremely important for criminal justice professionals to ensure that the message being communicated through the use of different modes is consistent.

Oral or verbal communication.

All forms of spoken information comprise oral communication. It is the most popular mode of communication among administrators, taking the form of face-to-face communication and telephone communication.

Written communication.

Letters, memos, reports, policy manuals, and other documents comprise written communication. Though less preferred to oral communication, written communication is typically desired when evidence for later use is required (as is always the case in criminal justice). On a lighter side of written (mis)communication, one of the participants in a workshop narrated the following story. This human resource manager presented her half-yearly report on the employees’ performance to her director, in which she had written “outstanding” next to the names of some of the employees. The director, without checking the contents of the report, congratulated these officers, which the manager found rather ridiculous. She had written “outstanding” across the names of the employees who were delinquent in filling out their half-yearly reports, but the director interpreted “outstanding” as meaning exceptional work had been accomplished by those employees. These miscommunications are of a greater concern in law enforcement services, where the demographics of officers are changing in line with the overall demographic changes in the United States. There has been an increase in people in the force whose first language is not English, which is the primary language of written communication in law enforcement agencies. Emphasizing the importance of written communication in law enforcement, Servino (1999) notes, “Judges and attorneys report that police officers’ lack of written communication skills is a growing problem. Police administrators need to enforce minimum standards to ensure effective communication takes place” (p. 23). It is also important to note here that a police officer’s written report does not stay with the police department but accompanies the case through court and into corrections as the offender moves through the process. For the case to be successfully processed, the officers have to convey their messages clearly so quality services can be provided at all levels of criminal justice.

Nonverbal communication.

The act of communication can take place without talking or writing, but instead involving actions, gestures, symbols, and behaviors, which are termed nonverbal (Mehrabian, 1968; 1972). In addition, nonverbal communication may accompany verbal communication, generally through unconscious or subconscious cues. For example, movement of eyes, change of facial expressions, voice tone, mannerisms, posture, touch, and dress may reflect some forms of communication within the context in which verbal communication is taking place. Maximum potential for miscommunication through nonverbal cues happens in crosscultural communication. Gender differences can also contribute to nonverbal communication challenges, though these tend to be minor compared to cultural influences. Training in law enforcement often teaches officers to observe the body gestures and movements of individuals they question. According to Kiernan (2007), “The ability to read an emotion without benefit of a spoken or understood communication capability would seem an indisputable precept of training at all levels of law enforcement.” She points out that “the law enforcement officers have limitless opportunities to apply this training in daily operational activity whether dealing with civil or criminal issues and are better prepared when confronted with a new form of adversary” (p. 47). At the same time, officers need to be careful of the nonverbal signals and messages they send to suspects. Pinizzotto and Davis (1999) reported on FBI research on various aspects of law enforcement safety related to the nonverbal communication cues that offenders perceive during their interaction with police officers. They concluded, “Law enforcement officers must remember that while they observe nonverbal messages from the individuals they question, these individuals also gather information from them. Subtle nuances that others would not view as weaknesses become opportunities for human predators to exploit. Law enforcement officers must protect themselves against such individuals who search for easy prey and strike with little or no warning” (p. 4).

Fitch and Means (2013) have proposed a very interesting IMPACT model of interpersonal communication, where each letter stands for one of the six principles of effective communication. (1) Identify and manage emotions. Most people think of themselves as rational human beings who make decisions based on logic and rationality. Yet when things go wrong the emotions kick in and the logic is thrown out of the window. People become unreasonable and uncooperative because the emotional brain (limbic system) has overridden the rational thinking areas of the brain. A well-trained officer should be trained to diffuse the emotions so that effective communication can take place. Empathizing with and acknowledging a person’s concerns and feelings make the person feel that the officer is trying to help, which reduces emotional tension. This show of concern does not mean that the officer agrees that these concerns are legitimate. Subsequently, the officer should ask questions because it forces people to pause and think. The officer should paraphrase to check for understanding and to correct any confusion. (2) Master the story. Relying on internal attribution can be dangerous, as it encourages impulsive and rash conclusions and suppresses empathy, thus jeopardizing communication. However, seeing things from another person’s perspective is important because it requires officers to suspend their assumptions and listen carefully to understand and master the story, which improves communication. (3) Promote positive behavior. People have an innate need to feel safe and control their lives. When people feel threatened or controlled, they act negatively by becoming aggressive. Officers can help people feel safe by reducing uncertainty by educating them about their decisions, actions, the rest of the process, and what to expect. The whole process can be intimidating for those who have never been exposed to the criminal justice system. Most people know little about the policies, procedures, and laws that most officers take for granted. In addition, officers should separate problems from people. Rather than questioning or attacking someone’s motives or intent, which at best can only be a guess, the officer should focus on the person’s objective conduct. For example, “Were you on your cell phone when you ran the stop sign and hit the car?” Such behavior from the officer will be more threatening to a person’s self-esteem or sense of control, and is more likely to produce uncooperative behavior resulting in failed communication. (4) Achieve rapport. Instead of reacting impulsively to difficult situations, officers should provide a calming effect by not striking back to rude and uncooperative people. Such positive reinforcement will break down the barrier and allow for people to become more communicative with the officer. (5) Control your response. Officers should never lose control of their response, despite all distractions that may arise from uncooperative citizens. Very often, strong emotions may cloud the real issues, but an officer should be able to sift through these emotions and identify the issues and respond to them objectively. An officer needs to learn to respond to the issue.

Communication Channels

Among the different channels of communication are face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memos or letter writing (Dunham, 1984; Lewis et al., 2001). The speed of the flow of communication through these channels can often be very slow, which makes it a critical factor in a service industry. Research has shown that each channel has a different capacity to convey information, often termed as channel richness. The hierarchy of channel richness is determined by three characteristics: (1) the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; (2) the ability to facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and (3) the ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.

Face-to-face is the richest medium of communication because it allows direct experience of multiple information cues, immediate feedback, and personal focus. Senders can provide instant clarification to any ambiguous information until a common understanding is reached.

Videoconferencing is the next in richness because it does not provide all forms of nonverbal cues. Some of the cues get lost during the electronic focus of the camera.

Telephone conversations are next in the richness hierarchy because they do not allow personal contact, and hence, most of the nonverbal cues are missing. However, both videoconferencing and the telephone allow the receiver to get instant clarification.

E-mail has gained increasing popularity as a communication channel because of its low cost and convenience. However, e-mail messages lack both verbal and nonverbal cues, thus increasing the chances for misunderstandings.

Written letters and memos can be personally focused, but they convey only the cues written on paper and are often slow to provide feedback; thus, they are lower in the channel richness hierarchy. The lowest on this hierarchy would be the impersonal written media, including fliers and bulletins, which are general in nature and do not focus on a single receiver, lack most cues, and do not permit feedback.

Though there is a channel richness hierarchy, it is important to understand that each communication channel has advantages and disadvantages, making them appropriate for different circumstances. For example, face-to-face communication is rich in context but may be very expensive in terms of cost and time to bring all parties together. On the other hand, e-mail is extremely inexpensive but does not have the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; does not facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and is low in its ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.

As general advice to managers and administrators in choosing the appropriate communication medium, it is suggested that they must select a rich channel for effective communication of nonroutine and complicated messages. Nonroutine communication tends to concern new events and is generally ambiguous, involving greater potential for misunderstanding. Managers should use multiple communication media for important and complex messages, to ensure the full gist is understood by the receiver; for example, managers could use both formal announcements in staff meetings as well as memo distribution to all employees. In contrast, routine communications are typically embedded in some past context or experience that managers and administrators already agree on and understand, making them simpler. Therefore, routine messages can be efficiently communicated through a channel that is lower in richness. Think here of the police officer who uses 10 codes to communicate with the police dispatcher. When the communication is official and a permanent record needs to be maintained, written communication is more appropriate. Written communication of all events and interactions with the public or clients is mandatory in criminal justice, as noted in the common saying among criminal justice professionals, “If it’s not in writing, it didn’t happen.” The key to this entire discussion is to select a channel to fit the message.

Organizational Communication

Communication within an organization can be effective when both the formal and informal organizational channels of communication are supportive. These channels can be supplemented by the managers with the use of informal channels to gather and disseminate information.

Formal Communication

The formal communication network is mirrored in the chain of command in an organization. The primary forms of communication flow are vertical (both downward and upward) and horizontal (Daft & Steers, 1986). To promote speedier exchange of information, learning organizations emphasize horizontal communication between workers across departments and levels. Electronic communication such as e-mail and instant messaging has made it easier for information to flow in all directions.

In vertical communication, there is an exchange of information between different levels in an organization. The communication flows upward or downward through the chain of command. Communication in corrections flows down the chain of command from the warden through the assistant wardens of operations and programs to the majors, lieutenants, sergeants, and so forth until reaching the correctional officers working with the inmates. Figure 8.2 illustrates the communication flow in the security division of a prison. The assistant warden of operations would also use downward communication with the various directors and other personnel under his or her command.

The messages and information sent by the senior management to their subordinates comprises downward communication. Since it is neither required nor possible for managers to communicate everything that happens within an organization, an important managerial decision is made regarding what information they need to communicate downward (Clampitt, DeKoch, & Cashman, 2000). To facilitate the day-to-day smooth functioning of the agency, downward communication in an organization typically would be composed of the following:

1. One of the important tasks of management is to communicate the big picture and information about specific targets and direction for lower levels as new strategies and goals are formulated. For example, police chiefs may want to communicate to all of their officers the big picture of the changed environment and the new initiatives to be taken to fight terrorism.
2. To facilitate implementation of modified goals and strategies, the management needs to communicate directives on how specific tasks should be done, along with the rationale for why these tasks need to occur.
3. At greater levels of specificity, the management needs to provide policies, rules, regulations, and benefits accompanying each task.
4. Management needs to provide directives on how the performance will be evaluated at the end of each task. This will form the feedback on the performance of individuals and, collectively, the performance of the departments.
5. To have workers attain their targets and fulfill the company’s vision and mission, the management must communicate motivating statements to workers on a continuous basis. Sergeants have to ensure that their officers go home safely at the end of the day and continue to stay motivated to help fight crime.

The common methods of downward communication are through face-to-face addressing, speeches using the internal audio-visual media, messages in company newsletters or individual leaflets, e-mails, bulletin boards, and company manuals (London, 1999). All of these methods are typically one-way communications, as they do not encourage feedback. Another unfavorable factor that impacts this type of communication is the number of levels that the information needs to travel to reach all of the employees. Approximately 25% of information is typically lost each time it is passed from one person to the next (Lewis et al., 2001). Such information loss cannot be avoided in downward communication, though it can be reduced substantially by following the steps of effective communication described later.

Messages that flow from lower to higher levels in an organizational hierarchy are termed upward communication. Typically, such communication allows feedback on management initiatives or report progress, and permits employees to air their grievances (Frese, Teng, & Wijnen, 1999; Glauser, 1984; Love, 1998; Lurie, 1999), all of which is a reflection of a healthy and progressive organization.

Figure 8.2 Illustration of Downward Communication in a Correctional Facility

Organizations must facilitate upward communication, as it provides them an opportunity to benefit from ideas and inputs from people at all levels and gives them an understanding of the general environment at the lower level. Progressive organizations provide suggestion boxes, open-door policies, employee surveys, and opinion polls, as well as town hall kinds of face-to-face meetings between workers and upper management, to allow undistorted information to reach them. The upper-level managers are responsible for responding to messages from lower-level employees to let them know that their comments and suggestions are valued. In contrast, there are also organizations where managers are unprepared to hear employee problems, and all forms of upward communication airing grievances are quelled. The general environment is one of mistrust in such companies.

Interdependence between different functions and departments creates the need to communicate between peers and coworkers within and across departments, which is called horizontal communication (Daft & Marcic, 2004). The need for this form of lateral or diagonal exchange of messages may be driven by the need to coordinate activities, seek support of members, or simply share information among members within the same department or with members in other departments. Horizontal communication is greatly valued in learning organizations, which are based on little hierarchy and a culture that promotes participation and teamwork. The attention in these organizations is on problem solving and continuous modification of the process to promote flexibility and adaptability. Crossjurisdictional and crossdisciplinary events have become more significant in the law enforcement field in recent years. Within this changing context, Mulholland (2004) discusses the need to develop an effective means for real-time communication among various law-enforcing agencies at a crime scene. Bayless (2004) discusses the measures undertaken by Los Angeles to counter the threats of terrorism, which suggests the effective tactics of communicating among local, state, and federal operations. One of the most important elements of this communication strategy is the use of high-speed communication technology to rapidly contact people in times of crisis (Bayless, 2004). Universities around the United States have implemented emergency warning systems to alert faculty, staff, and students of potentially dangerous situations as a result of the recent school shootings on college campuses (Zalud, 2004). Emergency warnings are sent across e-mail systems, by cell phone, by text message, and through landline telephones to all affected parties. This real-time, horizontal communication pattern allows for better coordination of emergency services and a safer environment for the employees and students.

Communication in certain groups takes place in specific recurring patterns, which develops relationships among people over time, creating what are termed communication networks (George & Jones, 2002; Rogers & Rogers, 1976). If the members differ in ranking, then those with higher ranking are likely to dominate the communication network. The size of this formal or informal group will impact the effectiveness of communication within the network. Therefore, communication networks will be highly complex in a 15-member group, unlike in a 5-member group. There are special types of horizontal communications, which are classified as the wheel, the chain, the circle, and the all-channel network (George & Jones, 2002).

• The wheel network is a centralized network where team members do not communicate directly with one another but must report to one individual who is the sole sender of messages to other group members. Essentially, all information flows to and from this central member. Such networks are very effective when group members work independently, but group performance is determined by summing up the performance of the members of the group. For example, groups of sales representatives have little need to communicate directly with one another, but must communicate with the formal or informal leader of the group. These networks would work well in team sports such as swimming, track, or golf, where the coach communicates and coordinates with the entire team, and the team members can perform their tasks with minimal direct communication with the rest of the team. The wheel network can also be seen in prison systems. A central control booth regulates the entire prison building. All communication must pass through the person operating the control booth, whether it be a request to open a cell door or information concerning the movement of an inmate from one place to another. The officers in the correctional units operate independent of one another within each unit but are each dependent on the control booth to be in command of the facility. In another example, the dispatcher of the local sheriff’s office performs wheel network communications. The sheriff’s deputies work independent of one another while constantly maintaining contact with the dispatcher at a central location.
• A chain network is common when there is sequential task interdependence, which has no hierarchical implications. In such networks, there is a predetermined communication flow with members communicating with individuals on either side of them in the chain. One can see such networks on a company shop floor that has an assembly-line mode of manufacturing. Sometimes, chain networks may support hierarchical positioning within a group. For example, in a sit-down restaurant there is a network chain from the manager to the head chef, the sous chef, wait staff, busser, and cleaning people. Communication within this group essentially goes up and down the hierarchy. Likewise, in a juvenile facility, workers pass cases from one to another with little difficulty. Each worker has a specific task, which, once completed, leads the case to the next worker. The intake officer will perform the duties necessary to process a child into the facility. Once these duties are completed, the intake officer will pass the case to the court officer for preparation. The court officer handles the initial jurisdictional, adjudication, and disposition hearings. After disposition is ordered, the court officer will send the file to a probation officer who will ensure that the court’s orders are carried out. If there is a need for institutionalization, the probation officer will communicate with the treatment provider and will monitor the case with a caseworker inside the treatment facility. All communication is done by phone and through record keeping in the child’s case file.
• Circle networks occur within groups whose members are similar on some dimension, such as an area of expertise, location of offices, sitting arrangements during meetings, and the like. For example, within a university setting, the professors within a department who share similar expertise communicate with one another. These networks are fairly decentralized. Specialties in criminal justice operate in the same fashion. Those officers working in community-oriented policing communicate and coordinate with one another on programming, innovative ideas, and problems or concerns they discover in the area they patrol. Probation officers working with sex offenders hold staffing meetings as well as communicate informally about cases and potential treatment issues or possibilities on a regular basis. Circle networks work well in specialized units within criminal justice agencies.
• All-channel networks are least centralized and create the possibility for maximum participation of all members in the group. They are typically found in organizations or subgroups involved in complex work premised on reciprocal task interdependence, which requires every group member to communicate with every other group member. For example, within a hospital, the emergency room personnel would support an all-channel network; a new product team may support an all-channel network within a company; and a special operations task force, such as a special weapons and tactics (SWAT) team, would support an all-channel network in policing. These networks work well in team-oriented sports such as basketball, ice hockey, soccer, and football that require a high degree of member coordination.

No single network will prove effective in all situations. If the wheel network is overused because it is low in cost, where superiors instruct subordinates, then there may be dissatisfaction among the group members. These group members may have very low motivation to contribute to the group’s overall effectiveness. Furthermore, teams should match the network type with their goals and tasks for high communication performance. If the problems are simple and the tasks require little member interdependence, then the wheel network will work best. An all-channel network in such a situation would be highly inefficient. Team members will feel bored with meetings and consider such meetings a waste of time. Moreover, all-channel networks have higher labor cost, as they involve all team members at all times.

Formal communication is generally slower. There is a strong belief among many (see In the News 2.2 in Chapter 2) that the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States could have been prevented if the information had flowed faster through the formal channels involving various law enforcement agencies. Despite the loosely connected information exchange, formalized communication networks play some crucial roles. In large organizations, they allow for better coordination of tasks that may be spread out among various agencies and functions. By reducing miscommunication, they cut down duplication of work and eliminate unnecessary waste. However, in the real world if one were to examine the communication in a large police department, one would find it hard to strictly match it with any of the methods described here. People are not typically segregated by cubicles or partitions. Normally, there are police officers of different ranks, complainants, and other staff interacting with one another in the hallway, seated, standing, or moving about in different directions. Therefore, the formal decision making follows the direction prescribed by these formal channels, but communication is a lot more loosely connected to social relationships. In addition, the rapidly changing information technology is altering information sharing and communication strategies.

Informal Communication

Information that flows outside the formally authorized channels and does not adhere to the hierarchy of authority is called informal communication. Such communication tends to connect everyone in the organization. Interpersonal social interactions are inevitable in the workplace, and these form the basis for informal communications. Two types of informal channels used in many organizations (Daft & Marcic, 2004) are described next.

Management by Wandering Around

Many executives mingle and talk directly with employees when they are walking through the company or across the shop floor, thus avoiding the vertical and horizontal chains of command (Peters & Waterman, 1982). By developing open communication with employees through such informal means, these executives learn more about their departments, divisions, and organizations. Most executives supplement the information gathered through formal channels with information from informal channels. In the working of large police departments, a lot of informal communication takes place in the hallways, at water coolers, in the washrooms, on the elevators, in the locker rooms, and so forth.

The Grapevine

Another form of informal communication takes place typically in person-to-person networks of employees, which are not officially endorsed by the organization (Davis & Newstrom, 1985). Also known as spontaneous communication, these channels are opportunistic and informal, and evolve from social relationships that develop within an organization. Close proximity, similarities in work activities, common interests, and shared values and social characteristics all promote informal communication among individuals. The grapevine cuts across all vertical and horizontal chains of command and links employees in all directions, irrespective of their formal position within the company. It disseminates information much faster than do the formal channels. Though the grapevine exists at all times, it can become a dominant communication channel when the formal channels are ineffective or closed. Typically, during greater uncertainty created by changes within an organization, sagging economic conditions, introduction of new technology, or changes in senior positions, the grapevine tends to be more active. Research shows that 80% of grapevine communication pertains to business-related subject matters, with 70% to 90% accuracy (Simmons, 1985). Using a survey to collect data from 22,000 shift workers in different industries, Ettorre (1997) discovered that 55% of workers get most of their information from the grapevine.

The very nature of the informal communication taking place among members results in certain distortion of information, based on individual understanding and renarrating it afterward. Such distorted information can create misunderstandings among employees. The grapevine can be harmful to an organization when wrong information is disseminated to group members. Moreover, the grapevine can be a deterrent to the enforcement of the supervisory authority because informal communication networks introduce their own set of power relations. The rumor mill can go into overdrive, creating difficult situations for administrators and the people they serve.

Barriers to Effective Communication

Since most people get into the act of communication without conscious thought or effort, they typically believe communication is simple. However, communication is complex, with innumerable opportunities for making an error in sending or receiving messages. Anything that interferes with a clear communication process is often termed noise or barriers. These barriers to effective communication may occur at various points in the process of communication and can be broadly classified as individual barriers and organizational barriers.

Individual barriers to communication.

These barriers originate from the use of jargon, the use of incorrect channel or medium of communication, filtering and information distortion, a lack of feedback or inappropriate feedback, and poor listening (Daft & Marcic, 2004; George & Jones, 2002). The use of jargon may often cause miscommunication, especially when the message is received by someone outside of the profession. Similarly, semantics can often be confusing because of the diverse interpretations of the same word. It has been found that on average each word in the English language has 28 different definitions (Stoner & Freeman, 1989), which implies that the sender must be extremely careful to choose the words that will accurately encode the intended ideas. Errors in communication may occur because of the use of an incorrect channel or medium. Poor handwriting, a poor telephone connection, and so forth are all examples of bad channels or mediums. As discussed earlier, channels of communication can be placed on a hierarchy of richness. Great consideration should be given to choosing the appropriate channel of communication to match the nature of the message to reduce the chances of communication errors. Filtering occurs when the sender does not send the entire message. Part of the message may be withheld by the sender who thinks that the receiver does not need the entire information. Sometimes, the negative part of the information may be filtered because of the fear of unfavorable reaction. Other times, information distortion or alteration may be done deliberately by the senders to serve their interests at the expense of the organization’s goals. Filtering may also occur when there are too many intermediaries through whom information has to travel. By the time the message reaches the intended receiver, it may be distorted. This distortion can be demonstrated by initiating a message that passes through several students. By the time it reaches back to the person who had initiated the message, it is completely different from what was originally said. Filtering and information distortion can be minimized by providing strict guidelines of communication, accompanied by good training so that workers know what, when, and how to communicate. Establishing trust along with efforts to solve problems and not punish people will also help reduce distortion of information. Organizations that have adopted the service quality philosophy in the workplace are more likely to encourage better communication. These organizations identify the root cause of the problem rather than dealing with only the symptom, and then try to improve the process. In such progressive, service-oriented organizations, workers know that when they communicate a problem to their superiors, they will not be punished, which discourages filtering and distortion of information. To promote good communication and eliminate as much noise as possible, managers should keep in mind the following tips:

• Unless the message is clear in the person’s mind regarding what the person wants to say, chances are low that the sender will be able to communicate the idea effectively to others.
• Individuals should convey the idea or information in a very direct manner, encoding it in symbols or language that the receiver will understand. For example, use of jargon or specialized terminology can often confuse the message to a receiver outside the profession. Policese works well when police are communicating with one another. But unless a receiver is familiar with the specialized language of policing and with the 10 codes, the receiver is unlikely to understand what the police officer is communicating. Using nonverbal cues is another way to support the message.
• Choose the medium that is generally used to communicate with this group of people. However, keep in mind that more complicated and nonroutine messages should be communicated using a richer medium. Also, use informal channels to complement the gathering and dissemination of information.
• Always state the message in a manner that forces the receiver to provide feedback. Such feedback provides a good measure of how well the message was received and interpreted by the receiver, suggesting that two-way communication is a significantly better form of communication than one-way.
• Adopting a service quality approach in the organization will promote a climate of trust and openness. It focuses on identifying the root cause and not acting on the symptom. Employees report symptoms; hence, they should not be punished but encouraged to help identify the root cause. Such an approach helps build trust, promotes communication, and improves the service delivery process.
• Be a good listener, and watch for nonverbal cues. Train subordinates to do the same. As an example, investigators are keen on watching for nonverbal cues when interrogating a suspect.
• Individuals from one culture should pay attention to culture differences when communicating with people from other cultures.
• As mentioned earlier, in the process of communication, feedback is important because it confirms that the message has been received and properly understood. Sometimes, feedback may not be provided because it may be making people feel uncomfortable, or it may be withheld deliberately by the receiver to serve personal interests at the expense of the organization’s goals. In other instances, the receivers may be inconsistent in their verbal and nonverbal feedback. When the receiver either fails to provide feedback or provides an inappropriate or inconsistent feedback, it becomes uncertain whether the message was received the way it was intended by the sender, resulting in the breakdown of communication. Certain principles that need to be observed in providing effective feedback are as follows: (a) Feedback should be specific rather than general, including specific examples elaborating on what is being recommended. It should focus on things that the sender can control; (b) feedback should be given when the receiver appears ready to accept it; (c) do not provide feedback when the receiver is angry or upset; (d) feedback should focus on the behavior or act that can be changed rather than on the person; and (e) before sending the feedback, the sender should put himself or herself in the receiver’s shoes to understand and experience the feedback the sender is about to provide.
• Research and experience show that employees and customers are important sources of information. Therefore, an important tool of managerial communication is listening, both to employees and to customers, which forms an important link in the communication process model. Listening involves the skill of grasping both the verbal and nonverbal components to interpret the message fully. Only then can the manager respond appropriately. It is found that about 75% of effective communication is listening, although most people spend only 30% to 40% of their time listening, which leads to many communication errors (Nichols, 1995). The following are guidelines to becoming an effective listener (Kiechel, 1987): (a) Do not concentrate on the response, but focus on what is being said by looking at the sender and not interrupting; (b) focus on understanding what is being heard and try to sense the sender’s feelings; (c) look for both verbal and nonverbal content of messages and try to clarify when they are conflicting. Do not be afraid to ask questions to clarify and understand the message; (d) rephrase key points to ensure that the message was heard and understood in the way the sender intended; and (e) even though there may not be agreement with the sender’s message, do not distract the sender by looking at a wristwatch, tapping fingers on a table, or the like.

Organizational barriers to communication.

These barriers to communication are embedded in individual insensitivity to cultural diversity within a company and a general organizational culture of mistrust. Every organization is embedded in a culture. Within this overarching umbrella of organizational culture is the cultural diversity within an organization along with cultural sensitivity of the employees. Individuals are entrenched in language, religion, beliefs, and social values, all of which collectively define their culture. These cultural differences shape the filters that individuals use in their day-to-day communication. Encoding and decoding the sender’s message or the receiver’s feedback message can be potential sources for communication errors. The errors may occur because knowledge and culture act as filters that create noise when translating the symbols to meaning, causing the communication to break down. The greater the cultural differences are among employees, suppliers, and customers, the greater will be the challenges in crosscultural communication. Ethnocentrism, or the tendency to consider one’s culture and its values as being superior to others, creates problems in communication. Therefore, the greater the difference between the cultures of the sender and the receiver, the greater is the probability of miscommunication. Most people have experienced the difficulty of communicating with people who do not speak the same language. Besides different languages, the linguistic style can introduce noise. Linguistic style is the person’s way of speaking, including tone of voice, volume, speed, use of words, and so forth, all of which are sources of potential misunderstandings in crosscultural communication.

In the United States, immigration accounted for a major share of the increase in the labor force in the 1990s. The migrant workers are expected to provide a growing share of the workforce in the 21st century. By the year 2020, it is estimated that Asian Americans, African Americans, and Hispanics will comprise more than 35% of the U.S. population and will form 30% of the U.S. workforce. Also by the year 2020, it is estimated that women will comprise 50% of the U.S. workforce. The growing diversity of the U.S. population is bringing challenges for criminal justice agencies to be culturally sensitive in understanding, communicating with, and serving their diverse customer base effectively, as discussed in Chapter 4. Furthermore, in the 21st century, criminal justice agencies will have to learn to work with agencies in other parts of the world because the planning of terrorist activities may be done in one country or a nexus of countries. In this new world order, where society must deal with global terror, it is important for law enforcement agencies and other criminal justice organizations to learn the skills of communicating effectively with parallel agencies in other parts of the world. This growing interdependence means that criminal justice professionals will have to learn to cross lines of time, culture, and geography to be successful. Many criminal justice professionals today need to know a second and third language and develop crosscultural understanding. Firsthand learning about other cultures can be experienced by traveling and staying abroad, by inviting people from other countries to the policing or corrections agency to do joint training, or through formal training by experts from other cultures. The mind-set needed by criminal justice professionals is to expect the unexpected and be prepared for constant change.

Before engaging in work-related discussions, individuals have a need for social trust. In some companies, the organizational culture promotes trust and communication, while in many others it may stifle communication by creating distrust. A lack of trust causes defensive tactics among the communicating entities, motivating the receiver to spend much energy identifying the hidden meanings in the sender’s message. Therefore, it is extremely important to nurture and reinforce trust and honesty in the workplace environment, which eases communication and reduces the likelihood of miscommunication. Managers who spend time walking around and directly communicating across different levels tend to foster greater trust among employees.

When the senior management is not careful in selecting and screening the information that needs to be shared with employees, it can cause information overload. Too much exchange of information can stifle communication by choking the channels and overloading the employees with more information than they can process. Such excess information leads to a failure to process some of the important information, processing information incorrectly, delaying the information processing, and lowering the quality of information processing.

On the other hand, when people are not informed about matters that have the potential to affect them personally, the grapevine as an informal communication channel takes root within the organization. Typically, the grapevine spreads information among members when they are not informed. Once started, the grapevine spreads rapidly and is hard to control, as noted earlier in the chapter. To prevent inaccurate information from spreading, organizations need to be in constant touch with their employees. They need to provide them with up-to-date, accurate information on issues important to workers and try to keep things more transparent and easily accessible. Agencies where information is deliberately withheld on the belief that “information is power” are most likely to have grapevines filling the void left by official information. However, when agencies are transparent and information can be easily accessed by any member of the organization, grapevines find it hard to establish roots.

Communication in a Learning Organization

In the past, organizational hierarchies were developed in part to move information up and down the system, working with the assumption that key ideas and decisions originated at the top and were channeled downward. Most for-profit companies today assume that ideas can emerge from everyone, and the role of the manager is to facilitate open channels of communication to allow ideas, information, and knowledge to flow throughout the organization. Criminal justice agencies have been slow to realize this but are making efforts to change the cumbersome communication channels found in the traditional organizational structures. In addition, an emphasis on knowledge management and information sharing has led to the flattening of organizational structures, resulting in greater empowerment and involvement of employees, which promotes open communication. In such progressive organizations, information travels throughout the company, cutting through the functional and hierarchical levels. This form of open communication is essential for building trust and commitment to promoting common goals between groups and teams that are important components of learning organizations. Feedback is an essential component of open communication because it helps individuals and the organization to learn and improve. Feedback can be received from supervisors, coworkers, customers, suppliers, members of partner organizations, and society. Furthermore, progressive criminal justice agencies have installed the latest information technology to allow fast movement of information within the organization. As discussed in In the News 8.2, information technology keeps everyone informed, allowing these agencies to provide rapid response to any emergency situation.

As discussed in In the News 8.2, along with changes in organizational structure, there is a need to integrate information technology that allows high-speed communication. When terrorism or any other law-enforcement-related crisis occurs, multiple agencies need to be coordinated to provide a quick response. High-speed technology enables rapid collection and dissemination of information, facilitating the integration of activities of law enforcement officers, fire fighters, and EMS. At the time of the crisis, this can truly make a difference in managing the situation well versus managing in chaos. High-speed communication can also prepare law enforcement agencies to prevent a crisis from developing (for example, traffic congestion because of an accident). A variety of communication-related technologies such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), digital imaging of fingerprints, laptop computers, mobile radios, video cameras, night vision/electro-optics, and so forth are playing a significant role in reducing crime rates, apprehending criminals, and protecting society. Crime mapping using computers allows police to identify patterns and take appropriate actions to prevent future occurrences. Digital imaging of fingerprints instead of the traditional ink-and-paper method allows law enforcement agencies to transfer records electronically to the FBI’s Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS). Cellular phones and mobile radios allow the officers to communicate with their headquarters from the crime scene, and to ask for any additional officers if needed. GPS software allows officers to pinpoint their exact location for the dispatcher, who can identify the shortest and fastest route to the crime scene. All in all, new and effective communication channels in criminal justice have made these agencies better and more efficient in carrying out their responsibilities.

In the News 8.2

Communicating Through Crisis

Terrorism is no longer reserved for foreign countries. It is now a reality in the United States of America, spawned by the atrocities that occurred on September 11th. Nor is the threat of terrorism confined to New York or Washington, D.C. The threat spans coasts and traverses county lines.

As one of the largest metropolitan areas in the United States, Los Angeles has undertaken measures to prepare itself for this threat. These measures have included working on the state and federal level to reassess procedures and examining the effectiveness of current plans and operations. Self-assessment such as this has become commonplace in law enforcement agencies throughout America.

Yet, with all of these efforts and increased awareness, one constant overlaps all homeland security efforts. That constant is communication. Communication is perhaps the most essential element of effective law enforcement in the war on terror.

One of the most effective tactics for communicating in a crisis—such as a terrorist attack—utilizes technology known as high-speed communication. This technology enables law enforcement agencies to rapidly contact as many people as necessary in a time of crisis. Within minutes, important messages are delivered to neighborhoods, public officials, business districts and countless other individuals and groups. In essence, notification technology serves as a communication ladder, providing links between law enforcement officials and important target audiences from the ground up.

In the immediate aftermath of a terrorist incident, the police or sheriff’s department is consumed with activity. A normally quiet precinct or department instantly becomes the communication hub for an entire city, potentially on the brink of chaos. In the early stages, gathering accurate information is critical. However, precisely interpreting that information and efficiently disseminating it to the public and private sectors is without a doubt the most important step in communicating during a crisis. Law enforcement command staff must take time to define their specific audiences and the messages that need to reach those individuals or groups.

The first task at hand is intelligence gathering: What has happened? Who has been affected? Where did the incident or attack take place? Are people or property still in danger? How much time is there? Being thorough on the front end, anticipating problems and targeting essential audiences will save time and energy. Once these questions have been asked and answered, officers can then begin the process of notifying the community at large.

The Technology

Given the unpredictable nature of terrorist attacks and the potential for significant loss of life and property damage, high-speed notification technology is one of law enforcement’s greatest allies. A single dispatcher can reach literally thousands of people in a matter of minutes. It is proven technology: Law enforcement agencies, military bases, Fortune 500 companies and the highest levels of national government have high-speed notification systems operational 24 hours a day. With this technology, recipients can receive time-sensitive, crucial messages on cell phones, by e-mail, pagers, fax and landline telephones.

The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department utilizes a high-speed notification system developed by DCC (Dialogic Communications Corporation) called “The Communicator.” The Los Angeles County Sheriff’s Department has used it in numerous scenarios, such as bank robberies, child abductions/disappearances and severe weather conditions. However, after September 2001, the department began thinking of situations in which high-speed notification might be required to enhance communication in homeland security efforts.

Essentially, high-speed notification functions like a phone tree, without expending the time and energy of valuable human resources. The software is designed to retain an unlimited contact list, which should be updated consistently to ensure accuracy. The list can be manipulated from a single personal computer. Dispatchers pre-record, or record in real time, voice and text messages that can be distributed to a designated contact list with a click of the mouse. The message is sent with lightning speed, arriving via each contact’s preferred form of communication in minutes.

Through an innovative GIS mapping interface, the high-speed notification software can alert any designated audience or targeted geographic area—a specific city street, a block of a downtown business district, or a tri-county area, for example. The mapping interface can be extremely beneficial when the threat may only occur in one specific area, or if different messages are required for different audiences in different locations.

Another important function, which pertains specifically to first responders, is the “status report” feature. This allows the dispatcher to know who has responded to his or her call for assistance and when they will arrive. “The Communicator” software may also be programmed to continue calling first responders until a designated number of contacts has been made. Once that threshold has been reached, the system discontinues calling. This avoids the problem of unneeded personnel arriving on the scene and confusing relief efforts.

Because databases can and should be built before an attack, law enforcement agencies can take pains up front to anticipate every possible audience they might need to reach. If this important step is taken, then in the event of an actual emergency, a dispatcher can record alerts and messages immediately after the scope of the attack has been determined and deliver it without hesitation to the appropriate recipients.

This proactive measure of pre-built databases brings up a particularly crucial point: Know your audiences. Discuss each audience internally in your agency one by one. How quickly will each one need to know that an attack has occurred? Who inside the agency should record the message? Will certain types of terrorist attacks make some citizens more vulnerable than others?

Once a specific group of contacts has been identified, spend time discussing the best way to communicate with each. For example, the technology could be used to alert thousands of people that the water supply has been contaminated or that a bomb has been detonated in a downtown shopping district. Thought should be given to how that message should be delivered to avoid a stampede of citizens into or out of the affected area. Also, prioritize the calls before a disaster occurs. If the water supply has been contaminated, should the water department or the affected neighborhoods be contacted first?

Following is a breakout of specific target groups that will likely appear on every law enforcement agency’s contact database.

First-Response Teams

If public safety officials learned but one thing from September 11th, it was that response time and coordination among responders are truly the make-or-break factors. Firefighters, law enforcement officers and EMS units mobilized quickly and worked together in fluid precision. As a result, lives were saved.

First-response teams will generally be the first audience contacted in the event of a terrorist attack. These professionals are first on the scene, not only to provide medical attention and emergency response, but also to stabilize the inevitable panic that ensues following a violent episode. That is why it is so important to communicate with these men and women quickly and accurately.

With a high-speed notification system in place, these responders are better equipped to handle the situation once they arrive at the incident scene. Even a small amount of incident-specific information can greatly enhance their level of success. For example, if terrorists attacked a certain neighborhood by using a chemical weapon, the high-speed notification system would deliver a first-response message briefing teams about location, the toxicity of the substance and what HAZMAT equipment will be required to control the spread of the chemical.

High-speed notification systems also provide feedback features that record individual responses, such as fit-for-duty status and ETAs for assembling and rotating personnel. This can also be applied to a typical call-out procedure, whether summoning on-duty or off-duty personnel.

Cross-Jurisdictional

When terror strikes, it is not one agency’s problem. Events of great magnitude require assistance at many levels of public safety, including local police departments and federal agencies. Because each of these groups has some degree of responsibility for the public, clear initial communication is an absolute must to avoid sending conflicting messages or premature information. In Los Angeles, for example, the sheriff’s department along with the Los Angeles Police Department, the FBI and other public safety departments have formed the Terrorism Early Warning Task Force. This consortium consists of leaders from each law enforcement branch who have the authority to make decisions on behalf of their organization. The quick and accurate sharing of information is critical with this kind of structure.

High-speed notification can also be employed to alert law enforcement agencies on the outskirts of the disaster. This can potentially thwart massive traffic congestion or act as a call for more qualified manpower. In some cases, the notification may alert outlying officials that the perpetrators of an attack were seen leaving the scene in a specific vehicle. In any case, quick communication with surrounding jurisdictions could prove invaluable.

Government Officials

The goal of a terrorist attack is to create chaos. Chaos often occurs when appropriate groups are not aware of all of the facts and begin to speculate. It is important that they get reliable information, and quickly, in the event of an attack to minimize the spread of confusion.

Government officials (local, state and federal) have an extremely important role to play in the event of an attack of this nature. One, the public needs to know that leaders are in place and managing the crisis. Two, government officials can convincingly and authoritatively deliver messages that convey factual information to various audiences. When preparing for or responding to terrorist activity, government officials have a responsibility to address and educate the public in a balanced and responsible manner. Using a high-speed notification system, law enforcement agencies can contact a wide range of important government officials and city leaders and immediately inform them of the situation’s status. Communicating facts to these officials on a state and national level will allow them to knowledgeably address the public and the news media, which is critical to preventing rumor, panic and confusion.

Media

The news media play one of the most vital roles in our country when dealing with issues of terror and homeland security. Television, in particular, is where people turn to learn about an impending crisis or its aftermath. For that reason, law enforcement must communicate carefully with news outlets to ensure that facts are what is reported, not speculation. Keeping the media informed will help prevent unnecessary panic.

High-speed notification systems, such as “The Communicator,” can provide the media with up-to-the-minute information with a built-in bulletin board feature. Through this automated system, reporters can simply call a designated number to receive recorded information about the situation at hand. Not only does this help communicate relevant facts to the media, but it also frees up valuable personnel who otherwise would be inundated with media inquiries. By utilizing high-speed notification, law enforcement agencies can enhance their ability to control the flow of information, ensuring that facts are being reported in a time frame that is considerate of journalists’ deadlines.

General Public

Various messages may need to be delivered to the public in a terrorist attack, including evacuation procedures, status of survivors, shelter locations, existing threats and hospital availability. Most likely, the quantity of information that must reach different groups or people will seemingly expand with each passing hour.

An explosion occurs in a residential district, for example, and that explosion triggers a massive fire. The high-speed notification system would be activated. A qualified dispatcher would send a message informing residents in the immediate vicinity of the fire and of specific evacuation procedures, such as which route to take and which areas to avoid. The law enforcement agency would then use the GIS feature to deliver messages, moving out from the fire, to residents and business owners, until all segments of the general public that could potentially be affected by the blaze have been notified and given instructions.

Internal Considerations

As with all technology, it is important to have competent, trained individuals in place to operate it. As it relates to high-speed notification, the dispatcher or person operating the system must possess, above all else, great judgment and the ability to regroup in a moment’s notice. Due to the quantity of information being processed, these dispatchers must have a complete understanding of the intelligence arena and the ability to decipher what is real or critical and what is not. Personnel using the high-speed notification technology must have access to technical support, should issues arise.

Once a person or team is in place, then it is time to plan the communication strategy, as discussed in this article—with attention to identifying key target audiences, managing contact data and pre-recording message scenarios. But most important, planning should include test call-outs. A system that remains idle and is only used when a disaster takes place is a system that is subject to error. Work out glitches and technical issues beforehand, then test it every month or use the technology for routine public information efforts, such as closed streets or utility problems.

Technology Website Available to Law Enforcement

The National Sheriffs’ Association and the other premier law enforcement associations have come together in a collaborative effort to address the needs for technology standards. Sheriff Ted Kamatchus, NSA 3rd Vice President, and Sheriff Craig Webre, NSA 4th Vice President, represent NSA on the project. NSA Training Director Fred Wilson is the staff coordinator.

Through this collaborative effort, a website with information and links to help law enforcement agencies with technology issues has been developed: www.leitsc.org.

With the help of the U.S. Department of justice, NSA and other law enforcement associations are taking a probing look at how law enforcement agencies are operating with scarce or fewer resources. Surveys are being sent to selected sheriffs asking them to address the issues and solutions related to this matter. Sheriffs and chiefs will then be asked to attend a summit to share successes and promising practices. When the comments from the summit are recorded and tabulated, they will be included in a publication that will allow this information to be shared nationally.

Once the audiences are identified, individuals in charge of operating the high-speed notification system must input the data and maintain an accurate database. With new residents arriving into metropolitan areas daily and businesses opening and closing, managing the audience information is a step that cannot be overlooked when developing a communication plan for terrorist attacks. Stay in contact with neighborhood associations and chambers of commerce. Make your network proactive and visible to the public, so that people are educated about the importance of the notification technology.

Once a department has a high-speed notification system and communication strategy in place, it is vital that the individuals operating the technology continue to learn, master and incorporate new developing technologies and applications. For example, DCC offers interactive training workshops taught by experts in the high-speed notification field. Technology is always evolving, and it’s important to learn and grow with it.

Conclusion

Terrorism is a very real threat to our society—today and for many years to come. As law enforcement agencies strengthen their homeland security programs in response to that threat, they must also understand the role of communication in controlling chaos and providing the general public with potentially life-saving instruction. And the ability to simultaneously send time-sensitive, critical messages to thousands of individuals and varied groups is an available resource that must be tapped.

SOURCE: From “Communicating Through Crisis,” by K. Bayless, March 1, 2004, Sheriff, 56(2), pp. 47–50. Sheriff magazine published by National Sheriffs’ Association.

Chapter Summary

• Communication is one of the most important elements of management within criminal justice agencies for providing a good quality of service.
• Communication is defined as a process by which ideas, thoughts, and information are exchanged and understood between two or more entities.
• In the communication process, the sender encodes the information and, using a channel, sends it to the receiver, who then decodes the message and follows it with a return message to the sender. The message is considered one-way communication if there is no feedback. If there is feedback, it is considered a two-way communication.
• Any internal or external interference or distraction in communicating the intended message is deemed noise, which can occur at any stage in the communication process.
• Though the act of communication is embedded in every management function, the three express purposes of communication are to provide information, motivate workers, and coordinate their efforts, with the intention of accomplishing organizational goals.
• There are three modes of interpersonal communications, namely, verbal, written, and nonverbal, which may be used individually or in some combination for effective communication. Managers must learn to use nonverbal cues to complement and support their verbal and written messages.
• The different channels of communication are face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memo or letter writing. The hierarchy of channel richness is determined by three characteristics: (1) the ability to handle multiple cues simultaneously; (2) the ability to facilitate rapid, two-way feedback; and (3) the ability to establish a personal focus for the communication.
• Communication within an organization can be effective when both the formal and informal organizational channels of communication are supportive. Formal organizational communication can be categorized as vertical or horizontal. These channels can be supplemented by managers with the use of informal channels, such as the manager wandering around and the grapevine to gather and disseminate information.
• Anything that interferes with a clear communication process is often termed as noise or a barrier. Individual barriers originate from the use of jargon, use of incorrect channels or mediums of communication, filtering and information distortion, lack of feedback or inappropriate feedback, and poor listening. Organizational barriers to communication are embedded in individual insensitivity to cultural diversity within a company and a general organizational culture of mistrust.
• For-profit companies today assume that ideas can emerge from everyone. The role of the manager is to facilitate open channels of communication to allow ideas, information, and knowledge to flow throughout the organization. Although slow to adopt this concept, criminal justice agencies are moving toward this philosophy. Furthermore, an emphasis on knowledge management and information sharing has led to the flattening of organization structures, leading to greater empowerment and involvement of employees and promoting open communication.

Chapter Review Questions

1. Explain the process of communication. What are the important factors for effective communication?
2. What are the three modes of interpersonal communication? Explain the importance of these modes in law enforcement and criminal justice agencies.
3. What are the different channels of communication? Explain the channel richness hierarchy in law enforcement and criminal justice agencies.
4. Explain vertical and horizontal communications. How can you improve these communications within law enforcement and criminal justice agencies?
5. Explain individual and organizational barriers to effective communication. Explain how communication barriers might interrupt the duties of a police officer.
6. Describe how each of the following communication channels may be used in criminal justice: face-to-face, videoconferencing, telephone, e-mail, and memo or letter writing.
7. What is the difference between nonroutine communication and routine communication? Describe a scenario in which nonroutine communication may be used in a correctional facility. Now do the same with routine communication.
8. What is a communication network?
9. What are the communications challenges facing criminal justice?

Case Study

Brady Johnson is a 6-foot, 2-inch white male who weighs approximately 260 pounds. He has openly admitted to having a drug problem. During previous prison stays, he attended Narcotics Anonymous meetings, although he claims that he sniffed heroine while in prison. He has been arrested many times for burglary, assault, robbery, and drug possession. In 2008, Johnson went to trial for attempted murder charges but was found not guilty. Eventually, he was imprisoned in the Viking Correctional Center after being convicted on burglary, assault, and possession charges. His sentence was four years. At best, he should be released in October 2012.

Recent DNA advancements linked Johnson to a sexual assault involving a 5-year-old female in Bardolph County. An indictment in that county was issued, and the judge in that case ordered him to be held without bond. However, after only 15 months in prison, Johnson was released from the Viking Correctional Center.

According to the prison, a record of the indictment was placed in Johnson’s file by an office clerk but went unnoticed by releasing officers prior to his release. The releasing officers claim they were only provided his personal property information. They have stated that they did not have the opportunity to review his entire file. This is the second offender released after being indicted by the Bardolph County State’s Attorney’s Office. Two months ago, a four-time-convicted rapist was released as a result of miscommunication between the two agencies. Approximately two weeks after his release, he allegedly raped a woman at a bus stop. He is currently being held without bond as he awaits a trial in that incident.

Court records show that the Bardolph County prosecutors had difficulty communicating with the state prison officials about Johnson. The prison had failed on two previous occasions to bring him from the prison for hearings on the sexual assault charges. The district attorney’s office had gone so far as to write a formal letter of complaint to the prison warden. The warden did not respond to the complaint, and as yet the correctional facility has not acknowledged receipt of the letter.

Questions for Review

1. What is/are the communication barrier(s) in this case? Why do you believe these occurred?
2. Who is at fault—the prison, the prosecutor’s office, the process on which indictments and release procedures are based, or all of these? Are any other agencies at fault? If fault lies with the procedures, how can these be changed or enhanced to allow for better communication between the agencies?
3. Liability is always an issue in corrections. If Johnson harms someone else while free, who is liable? Why?
4. How could service quality be built into the responses of the prosecutor’s office and the prison? Who are the customers that they serve?

Internet Resources

• National District Attorneys Association—http://www.ndaa.org
• National Youth Gang Center—http://www.iir.com/nygc
• U.S. Office of Justice Programs, News Center— http://ift.tt/2hRjREo

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1. We will be using the terms managerand administrator interchangeably because what a manager is to a company, an administrator is to a public organization.

 

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